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Lot Essay
The appearance of this unique set of books is a highly significant event, throwing valuable light not only on the history of Nara ehon but also on the later history of one of Japan's most distinctive dramatic forms and its place within the elite social ceremonies of the middle Edo period. The forty-seven volumes, hand-written and hand-illustrated in one of the styles generally subsumed under the category of Nara ehon [Nara picture-books], depict thirty-six kowakamai narratives, twenty-three of them with one volume, eleven of them with two volumes and a further two (nos. 7 and 34 below) with only the second volume of two, the first volume having been lost.
One of the most important dramatic genres of the late Muromachi period (fifteenth and sixteenth centuries), kowakamai is a form of chanted narrative, most often based on tales of the twelfth-century wars but including other subjects as well, recited by a performer dressed in court costume who sings to the accompaniment of a drum, incorporating dance routines at the most exciting and heroic moments in the story. The identification of this particular group of Nara ehon as illustrated kowakamai books was made possible by the titles themselves, some of which are used exclusively for the kowakamai versions of the episodes involved (for example, no. 20), and also by a check of some of the volumes against both the modern printed texts of Araki Shigeru1 and the thirteen Kan'ei-period (1624-44) woodblock-printed mai ni hon transcribed by Ago Toranoshin with facsimiles of the illustrations (see also below).2 As far as we are able to determine, this is the only recorded set, complete or incomplete, of hand-illustrated 'kowakamai Nara ehon', although a small number of titles within the group are represented by individual recorded Nara ehon.
The term Nara ehon or Nara-e hon was coined in the late nineteenth century in order to create a venerable ancestry for the genre to which it refers, but as defined by Watson (p. 121), Nara ehon are 'manuscript books of novels and stories . . . illustrated with page-size paintings in styles ranging from the crudest imitation of Muromachi scroll-painting to a confident miniaturist manner of consistent quality . . . [responding] to decorative and popular trends which are dominant . . . from the late 16th to the early 18th century . . .'3 The present set corresponds to Watson's (pp. 130-1) Groups IV and V. Group IV, Realism and Genre, is characterized by ' . . . Kano-style rocks and trees with figure scenes of middle class and artisan life'. Group V, Tosa-Like Miniaturist, is not sharply distinguished from Group IV but obviously has more of the characteristics of the Tosa school, although often with Kano elements too, as in this case. Among the examples cited by Watson (p. 131 and Pl. 10b) are a Heiji monogatari and a Hogen monogatari, 'typical of the vast production, in which the sets of books, handsomely boxed, sometimes amount to several score'. The very high standard of the materials used, the quality of the gold decoration, the unusually large size and the excellence of both painting and calligraphy suggest that the present volumes originally formed part of a set of konrei chodo [elite wedding gifts]. Multi-volume hand-calligraphed and hand-illustrated sets of books were especially popular from the late seventeenth century and the covers and title slips of this Lot are very similar to a those of a set of Imperial poetry anthologies in the hand of Reizei Tamehisa (1686-1741) that later may have formed part of a set of gifts for the wedding of a daughter of the Date clan to Harumichi, a scion of the Matsudaira-Ikeda family, Lords of Tottori.4
As noted above, the first parts of two of the two-volume narratives, Atsumori and Jubangiri, are missing from the present lot. If these are added to the present forty-seven, the untidiness of the resulting total of forty-nine volumes makes it virtually certain that at least one volume is missing, a hypothesis that is supported by the amount of available space remaining in the two storage boxes. A total of fifty volumes would correspond with that of certain other luxury sets of Nara ehon, for example, the Genpei seisuiki sold in these Rooms on 14 June 1989 (Lot 659) and a total of thirty-seven different titles is broadly in accordance with the Kan'ei period woodblock-printed edition on which the majority of subsequent early modern versions are based. Although some fifty kowakamai titles are recorded by Schneider, Ago and others, the Kan'ei edition included only thirty-six titles plus, according to Inoue, a further four unspecified supplementary titles.5 The listing of thirty-six titles given in Kokusho somokuroku, the standard bibliography of pre-1868 printed books, includes three titles, Taishokkan, Hama-ide and Nasu no Yoichi,6 not in the present set which does, on the other hand, feature three titles, Kurama-ide, Choryo and Kuketsu no kai, that are not in the Kokusho somokuroku list, and Nasu no Yoichi is absent from the Kan'ei edition preserved in the Katei Bunko collection, University of Tokyo (the Katei Bunko set does, however, include no fewer than three versions of Hama-ide).7 Kurama- ide is a continuation of Miraiki and the narrative of Kuketsu no kai essentially duplicates the second part of Hama-ide but the inclusion here of the Chinese tale of Choryo is something of a puzzle which must await further research. Since there is some doubt over the status of Nasu no Yoichi, the missing title is almost certainly the popular Taishokkan (see Lot 69), which tells of the seizure by the dragon king of the sea of a precious jewel which was to be dedicated to the Kofukuji temple by Fujiwara no Kamatari's daughter, consort of the Emperor of China, and the jewel's subsequent recovery by Kamatari. However, since Taishokkan is one of the longer texts, about twice as long, for example, as the related Iruka (no. 37 below) it might have run to two volumes, in which case it is likely that Nasu no Yoichi, the tale of a miraculous feat of archery at the battle of Yashima, was also included to make a total of fifty-two.
The exceptional rarity of the present set is underlined by the fact that no Nara ehon versions at all are recorded for seventeen of the titles (1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 34, 37, 44, 45, 46 and 47). In the case of six other titles (3, 5, 7, 17, 18 and 19), Watson, following Shimizu and Zumwinkle,8 gives a listing but mentions no actual example, while in at least a further six cases (2, 10-11, 12, 13, 22-3 and 31) the only recorded example is in scroll rather than book format. In all these twelve latter cases, the titles cited do not necessarily relate to kowakamai but may refer to illustrated versions of the popular late-medieval tales loosely described as otogizoshi. The only possible kowakamai narratives recorded in other Nara ehon but not in this set are Shizuka (Watson, p. 149), Izumigajo (Watson, p. 143) and Taishokkan (Watson, p.149).
The meticulous care and technical refinement of these volumes is complemented by a degree of flexibility and invention that is all too rarely seen in later Nara ehon. The calligraphy too is of an exceptionally high standard, equalling if not bettering the examples by Reizei Tamehisa cited above. No mere artisanal productions, these illustrated books look set to become the standard pictorial accounts of many of the thirty-six narratives they depict. Some of the images are very loosely based on the Kan'ei printed edition, but even the episodes selected for illustration correspond only roughly: a study of the thirteen Kan'ei books reproduced by Ago (see note 2) reveals that many Kan'ei images were not used and a still greater number were added by the anonymous artists who created this set. Even where there is a close similarity with the Kan'ei illustration, details and poses are altered at will; in particular, the painted version often adopts a much closer viewpoint which eliminates stock background elements that would have detracted from the overall impact. In a few cases, the painted version even embroiders the narrative content: to give just one example, when Kagekiyo's severed head is presented to Yoritomo following Kagekiyo's execution (see no. 11 below and Ago, p. 522), by surrounding the head with a halo and giving it the features of a Buddhist deity, the illustrator emphasised the failed hero's ultimate spiritual triumph over the evil dictator. Glancing through the more than 330 pages of illustration included in these volumes, the eye is constantly struck by their consistently high quality and by a wealth of fascinating vignettes: the baby Ushiwakamaru carried on his mother's back (no. 2), Yoshitsune with his beloved warrior-consort Shizuka (no. 18), the despair of the marooned Shunkan (no. 4), Choryo's arrival amidst the glories of the Buddhist pantheon (no. 44), Atsumori's retainers grieving over his headless corpse (no. 7), little Ushiwakamaru with the monstrous Tengu (no. 13), the richly emblazoned tents at the great boar hunt under Mount Fuji (no. 32) or the bizarre, shell-encrusted Chichibu Rokuro (no. 47).
The titles are listed below according to the classification of kowakamai suggested by Araki Shigeru following Sasano Ken,9 with further information from Roland Schneider.10 For the sake of completeness and as an aid to further research, alternative titles are also given; these are drawn from the many different textual sources collated in the ten volumes edited by Ago Toranoshin (see note 2). The 'other instances' include references to the list of titles provided by William Watson (see note 3), as well as actual examples cited by Watson and other examples mentioned in other sources. The summary narratives are drawn from Schneider and a variety of on-line and other Japanese sources.
A. Heijimono, episodes drawn from Heiji monogatari, the chronicle of the unsuccessful revolt of Fujiwara no Nobuyori and Minamoto no Yoshitomo against the Taira
1 Ibuki
Also called Ibuki ochi
The early life of the future shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo, later to become Yoshitsune's nemesis. The twelve-year-old Yoritomo takes refuge from the Taira in the mountains of Ibuki.
B. Tokiwamono, episodes from the life of Tokiwa Gozen, concubine of Minamoto no Yoshitomo and mother of Minamoto no Yoshitsune, greatest of Japanese heroes
2 Fushimi Tokiwa
Other instances:
Watson, p. 141; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll); Daitokyu Memorial Library; a 16th-century scroll in the Akagi Bunko, Shizuoka Prefecture 'Tokiwa in Fushimi'. The early life of Yoshitsune (in parallel with that of Yoritomo, see above): Tokiwa Gozen and her three sons, the youngest of whom is Yoshitsune, take refuge in Fushimi following the execution of their father Minamoto no Yoshitomo. They are protected by an aged couple who take pity on their plight.
3 Tokiwa mondo
Other instances:
Watson, p. 150
'Tokiwa's dialogue'. Having agreed to become Taira no Kiyomori's concubine in return for his sparing the life of the three boys, Tokiwa visits the temple where they have been sent for religious training. The abbot is horrified that a woman, 'source of all evil', should enter his temple and a humorous dialogue ensues.
C. Heikyokumono, episodes drawn from Heikyoku, biwa [lute]-accompanied narratives themselves based on Heike monogatari, the chronicle of the defeat of the Taira by the Minamoto
4 Iogashima
Also called Heike Iogashima
'Sulphur Island'. The three conspirators Taira no Yasumori, Fujiwara no Narichika and the priest Shunkan are exiled to Iogashima (also known as Kikaigashima, 'Devil's Island') for their part in a plot against Taira no Kiyomori. The following year (1178) two of them are pardoned but Shunkan, as ringleader, is permanently confined to the island.
5 Mongaku
Also called Mongaku shonin ichidaiki
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146
The miraculous deeds of the monk Mongaku.
6 Kiso gansho
'Kiso's prayer'. The story of Kiso Yoshinaka's prayer at the Hachiman shrine and his subsequent victory over the Taira at the battle of the Kurikara pass (1180).
7 Atsumori (part 2 only)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 140
The tragic death of the boy-warrior Atsumori; in part 2, his followers recover his headless corpse.
8, 9 Tsukishima (parts 1 and 2)
'The built island'. Taira no Kiyomori orders the construction of a magnificent temple on an island in the Inland Sea.
10, 11 Kagekiyo (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 144; Chester Beatty Library (scroll, no number)
The failed revenge of Taira no Kagekiyo and his imprisonment and execution by the Minamoto.
D. Hoganmono, episodes relating to the career and tragic end of Minamoto no Yoshitsune, largely drawn from Gikeiki, the chronicle of Yoshitsune.
12 Fue no maki
Also called Ushiwaka fue no maki monogatari
Other instances:
Watson, p. 141; Chester Beatty Library141 (scroll)
'The flute scroll'. The story of the flute known as aoba which was given to Ushiwakamaru (the young Yoshitsune) by his mother Tokiwa Gozen.
13 Miraiki
Also called Yoshitsune heiho miraiki
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll)
'The relation of things to come'. The Tengu [crow-headed monsters] of Mount Kurama inform Ushiwakamaru of his future destiny and instruct him in military matters.
14 Kurama-ide
'The descent from Mount Kurama'. Ushiwakamaru resolves to plot the downfall of the Taira clan and leaves Mount Kurama in secret. He and Yoshitsugu make for northern Japan on horseback and lodge at an inn owned by the latter.
15, 16 Eboshi-ori (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
cf. Watson, p. 134 (Jurokudan); an example in three volumes (the middle volume wanting) is in Nara Kyoiku Daigaku [Nara University of Education] (https://www.nara-edu.ac.jp/LIB/ehon/ekai.htm)
'The hat-maker'. After completing his military training, Ushiwakamaru seeks out a hat-maker and performs his own genbuku [coming of age] ceremony, taking the name Yoshitsune.
17 Koshigoe
The first episode dealing with the tragic aftermath of Yoshitsune's great victories and his eventual hunting-down and death at the hand of his half-brother Yoritomo. Yoshitsune visits Yoritomo at Kamakura, the new shogunal capital, but is forbidden to enter and is made to wait at Koshigoe, just outside. Benkei, the superhuman warrior-monk who accompanies him to the end, writes a letter to Yoritomo on his behalf, pledging his loyalty and unsuccessfully alerting Yoritomo to the false testimony of Kajiwara Kagetoki.
18 Horikawa youchi
Also called Yoshitsune Horikawa youchi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 143
'The night attack at the Horikawa River'. Kajiwara Kagetoki warns Yoritomo of the threat posed by Yoshitsune, who is trying to raise an army at Kyoto, and advises him to order an assassination attempt. The treacherous monk Tosa Shozon, disguised as a pilgrim, is captured by Yoshitsune but convinces him of his innocence and is released, only to launch an attack in the night on Yoshitsune's camp at the Horikawa river. Yoshitsune is saved by his beloved concubine Shizuka who wakes him and fights by his side; at length, with the help of Benkei, Tosa is captured and beheaded.
19 Shikoku-ochi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148
'The flight into Shikoku': the first stage of Yoshitsune's flight from his half-brother's forces. Yoshitsune makes his way to Shikoku (the smallest of Japan's four main islands) and establishes an independent jurisdiction, but his fleet is shipwrecked in a storm brought about by the vengeful ghosts of the Taira clan and most of his men are drowned. The castaways are washed up at Ashiya bay, where the local warlord attempts to capture Yoshitsune and hand him over to Yoritomo but is prevented by Benkei, who slays fifty-three of his men.
20 Togashi
Better known in other versions as Ataka (No) or Kanjincho (kabuki), this is by far the most famous episode from the tale of Yoshitsune's flight. Thanks to the ingenuity of Benkei, Yoshitsune and his dwindling band successfully trick their way past a checkpoint manned by Yoritomo's vassal Lord Togashi. Yoshitsune is disguised as a porter and Benkei pretends to read from a fictitious kanjincho [subscription list] in order to convince the guards that he is a monk on a fund-raising trip.
21 Oi-sagashi
'The backpack-search'. The fugitives' oi [backpacks] are searched by warriors loyal to the authorities in Kamakura. Despite their suspicions the party manages to escape but suffers another shipwreck.
22, 23 Yashima (parts 1 and 2)
Also called Yashima no ikusa
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; a late sixteenth-century version in two scrolls, in the Spencer Collection, New York Public Library
A story within a story. The fugitives, disguised as travelling monks, come across an old nun in an isolated house. Benkei tells her of the fate of her two sons, Yoshitsune's loyal followers Sato Tadanobu and his younger brother Tsuginobu. The latter saved Yoshitsune by putting himself in the way of an arrow fired at his master at the battle of Yashima in 1185, while the former covered Yoshitsune's retreat during his flight through the mountains of Yoshino to the south of Kyoto. Having completed this narration Yoshitsune and Benkei reveal their true identity and the episode concludes with their arrival at Takadachi (see below).
24 Kiyoshige
The heroic deaths of Yoshitsune's followers Suruga Kiyoshige and Ise Yoshimori on their unsuccessful mission to Kamakura to plead their master's innocence.
25, 26 Takadachi (parts 1 and 2)
Also called Yoshitsune Takadachi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 149; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll); Daitokyu Memorial Library
The final destruction of Yoshitsune and his band following the death of Fujiwara no Hidehira, an aged warlord who had offered him protection at Takadachi in Hiraizumi.
E. Sogamono, episodes taken from Soga monogatari, the tale of the revenge taken by the two Soga brothers, Sukenari and Tokimune, on Kudo Suketsune, their father's murderer
27 Genbuku Soga
'The Sogas' coming of age'. Tokimune, who has been sent to become a monk, meets his father's murderer when the latter visits his temple as a member of the shogun's retinue. Suketsune tries to win the boy's favour by presenting him with a sword which Tokimune will eventually use to kill him. In the second part of this episode Tokimune abandons his priestly avocation and, having rejoined his brother, undergoes the genbuku [coming of age] ceremony.
28, 29 Wada sakamori (parts 1 and 2)
'The feast for Wada'. The brothers plan to kill Suketsune during a hunt organized by Yoritomo at the foot of Mount Fuji. Sukenari bids farewell to his lover Tora, but his plans are interrupted when Wada Yoshimori, Lord of Sagami, pays a formal call on her father and a great feast is held. Following a breach of courtesy a fight breaks out between Sukenari and Asahina, the strongest of Wada's men. In the nick of time Tokimune comes to the rescue and, in the ensuing struggle, escapes from the gigantic Asahina by an abrupt movement in which the lower part of his armour is torn away.
30 Kosode Soga
Other instances:
Watson, p. 145; Rinsendo book catalogue no. 81 (Kyoto, Jan. 2002), cat. no. 14
'The Soga and the kimono'. Tokimune is reconciled with his mother, who had previously attempted to foil the revenge plot, and departs with his brother for Mount Fuji.
31 Tsurugi sandan
Also called Tsurugi Soga
Other instances:
Watson, p. 151; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll)
'The praising of the swords'. The abbot of the temple in Hakone where Tokimune was brought up presents each of the brothers with swords, called respectively Onikiri and Kumokiri, and explains the illustrious pedigree of the two blades. The first was used by an earlier warrior, Minamoto no Yorimitsu (Raiko), to slay the Shutendoji monster, while the latter was presented to the temple by none other than Yoshitsune.
32, 33 Youchi Soga (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; British Library, Or. 12468
'The night attack of the Soga'. Having identified the correct tent and found Suketsune asleep, Tokimune is about to strike off his head when Sukenari warns him of the impropriety of slaying a sleeping enemy. Suketsune is woken by the ensuing commotion and immediately killed.
34 Jubangiri (part 2 only)
'The tenth cut'. The brothers kill nine of Suketsune's men but a tenth man kills Sukenari. In part 2, Yoritomo wishes to takes pity on Tokimune and appoint him one of his vassals, but Tokimune, who has lost all will to live following his brother's death, is eventually put to death. A temple is erected to the boys' memory at the foot of Mount Fuji.
F. Taiheikimono, episode drawn from Taiheiki, a chronicle covering the fourteenth-century wars (see also Lot 70)
35, 36 Shinkyoku (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148; Takayama Fujihiko, Otogizoshi (Nihon no bijutsu, 52; Tokyo: Shibundo, 1976), fig. 108; Stephan Graf von der Schulenburg (ed.), Mönche, Monster, schöne Damen : japanische Malerei, Buch- und Holzschnittkunst des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts in Frankfurt am Main (Exhibition catalogue, Museum für Angewandte Kunst Frankfurt/Main; Berlin: Mann, 2000), cat. no. 9
'New stories'. Prince Takanaga (1311-37) falls in love with a girl but has to travel from the capital to Shikoku. She follows him under the protection of his retainer Hata. Her ship is captured by pirates but Hata kills himself so that his ghost will frighten them so much that they release the girl and she is reunited with his master.
G. Tokuyumono, 'special items'
37 Iruka
The story of Minister Iruka's death at the hands of Fujiwara no Kamatari (614-69).
38, 39 Yuriwaka daijin (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; a copy in three volumes, 17.4 cm. x 24.8 cm., on loan to the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass.; British Library11
The deeds of the hero Minister Yuriwaka; in the kowakamai version he lived in the time of Emperor Saga (809-23) and, anachronistically, prevented a Mongol invasion. Parallels to the story of Odysseus make it possible that this tale was further embroidered after the arrival of Europeans in the mid-sixteenth century, but some scholars trace all its origins to early Buddhist literature.
40, 41 Shida (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148; Takayama Fujihiko, Otogizoshi (Nihon no bijutsu, 52; Tokyo: Shibundo, 1976), fig. 114; Stephan Graf von der Schulenburg (ed.), Mönche, Monster, schöne Damen : japanische Malerei, Buch- und Holzschnittkunst des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts in Frankfurt am Main (Exhibition catalogue, Museum für Angewandte Kunst Frankfurt/Main; Berlin: Mann, 2000), cat. no. 8, in three volumes.
The tale of the samurai Shida Kotaro's struggles to recover his rightful inheritance, this is the longest of all kowakamai texts.
42, 43 Manju (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146; Tenri Library, 2580
Miraculous tales concerning the tenth-century warrior Minamoto no Mitsunaka (Manju).
44 Choryo
The story of the Chinese Han-dynasty hero (second century BC) Zhang Liang, set in a Buddhist context. The bodhisattva Kannon sends Zhang Liang [Choryo] to a distant land to learn the arts of war. He meets a sage on a bridge over a raging stream and when the latter's shoe falls into the water shows his filial piety by plunging into the waves and snatching the shoe from a huge serpent. Choryo is subsequently received into the Western Paradise.
H. Shugimono, 'blessing pieces'
45 Yumeawase
'Dream-gathering'. Adachi Morinaga, a retainer of the banished Yoritomo, dreams of his master's future conquests. The dream is interpreted by Oba Kageyoshi.
46 Umazoroe
'Marshalling the horses'. Yoritomo reviews his troops before his campaign against the Taira.
47 Kuketsu no kai
'The nine-hole shell'. Yoritomo has his young retainers compete to collect auspicious awabi shells. The winner is Chichibu Rokuro who stays under water for so long that limpets and barnacles attach themselves to his body.
NOTES
1 Araki Shigeru et. al. (eds.), Kowakamai: Yuriwaka daijin hoka [Kowakamai: Yuriwaka daijin and other stories] (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1979 [Toyo Bunko no. 355]).
2 Ago Toranoshin et. al. (eds.), Kowaka bukyoku kenkyu [Studies in kowaka dance recital], vol. 6 (Tokyo: Miyai Shoten, 1989), pp. 379-524. It was evidently intended to transcribe and reproduce the remainder of the Kan'ei edition at a later stage, but Ago's mai no hon project came to an end with volume 10 before this work could be carried out.
3 William Watson, 'Nara-e-hon', in William Watson (ed.), Artistic Personality and Decorative Style in Japanese Art, (London: Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, 1977), (121-64).
4 Sendai-shi Hakubutsukan [Sendai City Museum], Daimyoke no konrei [Daimyo weddings] (Sendai, 2000), cat. no. 73.
5 Inoue Muneo et. al. (eds.), Nihon kotenseki shoshigaku jiten [Dictionary of Japanese bibliography] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1999), p. 533, s.v. Mai no hon.
6 Iwanami Shoten, Kokusho somokuroku [A comprehensive catalogue of (pre-1868) Japanese books] vol. 7 (Tokyo, 1969), p. 425, s.v. Mai no hon.
7 The Katei Bunko set is listed at https://kateibunko.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/katei/katei5/bunrui/01- 02_0.html
8 Richard Zumwinkle, Nara Picture Books (a translation of Shimizu Yutaka, Nara ehon-ko [A study of Nara ehon]; Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1960).
9 Araki, p. 351.
10 Roland Schneider, Kowakamai: Sprache und Stil einer mittelalterlichen japanischen Rezitationskunst (Hamburg: Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, 1968), pp. 66- 79.
11 Nara Ehon Kokusai Kenkyu Kaigi [International Conference for the Study of Nara ehon], Zaigai Nara ehon [Nara ehon in foreign collections] (Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoen, 1981), cat. no. 9.
One of the most important dramatic genres of the late Muromachi period (fifteenth and sixteenth centuries), kowakamai is a form of chanted narrative, most often based on tales of the twelfth-century wars but including other subjects as well, recited by a performer dressed in court costume who sings to the accompaniment of a drum, incorporating dance routines at the most exciting and heroic moments in the story. The identification of this particular group of Nara ehon as illustrated kowakamai books was made possible by the titles themselves, some of which are used exclusively for the kowakamai versions of the episodes involved (for example, no. 20), and also by a check of some of the volumes against both the modern printed texts of Araki Shigeru
The term Nara ehon or Nara-e hon was coined in the late nineteenth century in order to create a venerable ancestry for the genre to which it refers, but as defined by Watson (p. 121), Nara ehon are 'manuscript books of novels and stories . . . illustrated with page-size paintings in styles ranging from the crudest imitation of Muromachi scroll-painting to a confident miniaturist manner of consistent quality . . . [responding] to decorative and popular trends which are dominant . . . from the late 16th to the early 18th century . . .'
As noted above, the first parts of two of the two-volume narratives, Atsumori and Jubangiri, are missing from the present lot. If these are added to the present forty-seven, the untidiness of the resulting total of forty-nine volumes makes it virtually certain that at least one volume is missing, a hypothesis that is supported by the amount of available space remaining in the two storage boxes. A total of fifty volumes would correspond with that of certain other luxury sets of Nara ehon, for example, the Genpei seisuiki sold in these Rooms on 14 June 1989 (Lot 659) and a total of thirty-seven different titles is broadly in accordance with the Kan'ei period woodblock-printed edition on which the majority of subsequent early modern versions are based. Although some fifty kowakamai titles are recorded by Schneider, Ago and others, the Kan'ei edition included only thirty-six titles plus, according to Inoue, a further four unspecified supplementary titles.
The exceptional rarity of the present set is underlined by the fact that no Nara ehon versions at all are recorded for seventeen of the titles (1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 34, 37, 44, 45, 46 and 47). In the case of six other titles (3, 5, 7, 17, 18 and 19), Watson, following Shimizu and Zumwinkle,
The meticulous care and technical refinement of these volumes is complemented by a degree of flexibility and invention that is all too rarely seen in later Nara ehon. The calligraphy too is of an exceptionally high standard, equalling if not bettering the examples by Reizei Tamehisa cited above. No mere artisanal productions, these illustrated books look set to become the standard pictorial accounts of many of the thirty-six narratives they depict. Some of the images are very loosely based on the Kan'ei printed edition, but even the episodes selected for illustration correspond only roughly: a study of the thirteen Kan'ei books reproduced by Ago (see note 2) reveals that many Kan'ei images were not used and a still greater number were added by the anonymous artists who created this set. Even where there is a close similarity with the Kan'ei illustration, details and poses are altered at will; in particular, the painted version often adopts a much closer viewpoint which eliminates stock background elements that would have detracted from the overall impact. In a few cases, the painted version even embroiders the narrative content: to give just one example, when Kagekiyo's severed head is presented to Yoritomo following Kagekiyo's execution (see no. 11 below and Ago, p. 522), by surrounding the head with a halo and giving it the features of a Buddhist deity, the illustrator emphasised the failed hero's ultimate spiritual triumph over the evil dictator. Glancing through the more than 330 pages of illustration included in these volumes, the eye is constantly struck by their consistently high quality and by a wealth of fascinating vignettes: the baby Ushiwakamaru carried on his mother's back (no. 2), Yoshitsune with his beloved warrior-consort Shizuka (no. 18), the despair of the marooned Shunkan (no. 4), Choryo's arrival amidst the glories of the Buddhist pantheon (no. 44), Atsumori's retainers grieving over his headless corpse (no. 7), little Ushiwakamaru with the monstrous Tengu (no. 13), the richly emblazoned tents at the great boar hunt under Mount Fuji (no. 32) or the bizarre, shell-encrusted Chichibu Rokuro (no. 47).
The titles are listed below according to the classification of kowakamai suggested by Araki Shigeru following Sasano Ken,
A. Heijimono, episodes drawn from Heiji monogatari, the chronicle of the unsuccessful revolt of Fujiwara no Nobuyori and Minamoto no Yoshitomo against the Taira
1 Ibuki
Also called Ibuki ochi
The early life of the future shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo, later to become Yoshitsune's nemesis. The twelve-year-old Yoritomo takes refuge from the Taira in the mountains of Ibuki.
B. Tokiwamono, episodes from the life of Tokiwa Gozen, concubine of Minamoto no Yoshitomo and mother of Minamoto no Yoshitsune, greatest of Japanese heroes
2 Fushimi Tokiwa
Other instances:
Watson, p. 141; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll); Daitokyu Memorial Library; a 16th-century scroll in the Akagi Bunko, Shizuoka Prefecture 'Tokiwa in Fushimi'. The early life of Yoshitsune (in parallel with that of Yoritomo, see above): Tokiwa Gozen and her three sons, the youngest of whom is Yoshitsune, take refuge in Fushimi following the execution of their father Minamoto no Yoshitomo. They are protected by an aged couple who take pity on their plight.
3 Tokiwa mondo
Other instances:
Watson, p. 150
'Tokiwa's dialogue'. Having agreed to become Taira no Kiyomori's concubine in return for his sparing the life of the three boys, Tokiwa visits the temple where they have been sent for religious training. The abbot is horrified that a woman, 'source of all evil', should enter his temple and a humorous dialogue ensues.
C. Heikyokumono, episodes drawn from Heikyoku, biwa [lute]-accompanied narratives themselves based on Heike monogatari, the chronicle of the defeat of the Taira by the Minamoto
4 Iogashima
Also called Heike Iogashima
'Sulphur Island'. The three conspirators Taira no Yasumori, Fujiwara no Narichika and the priest Shunkan are exiled to Iogashima (also known as Kikaigashima, 'Devil's Island') for their part in a plot against Taira no Kiyomori. The following year (1178) two of them are pardoned but Shunkan, as ringleader, is permanently confined to the island.
5 Mongaku
Also called Mongaku shonin ichidaiki
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146
The miraculous deeds of the monk Mongaku.
6 Kiso gansho
'Kiso's prayer'. The story of Kiso Yoshinaka's prayer at the Hachiman shrine and his subsequent victory over the Taira at the battle of the Kurikara pass (1180).
7 Atsumori (part 2 only)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 140
The tragic death of the boy-warrior Atsumori; in part 2, his followers recover his headless corpse.
8, 9 Tsukishima (parts 1 and 2)
'The built island'. Taira no Kiyomori orders the construction of a magnificent temple on an island in the Inland Sea.
10, 11 Kagekiyo (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 144; Chester Beatty Library (scroll, no number)
The failed revenge of Taira no Kagekiyo and his imprisonment and execution by the Minamoto.
D. Hoganmono, episodes relating to the career and tragic end of Minamoto no Yoshitsune, largely drawn from Gikeiki, the chronicle of Yoshitsune.
12 Fue no maki
Also called Ushiwaka fue no maki monogatari
Other instances:
Watson, p. 141; Chester Beatty Library141 (scroll)
'The flute scroll'. The story of the flute known as aoba which was given to Ushiwakamaru (the young Yoshitsune) by his mother Tokiwa Gozen.
13 Miraiki
Also called Yoshitsune heiho miraiki
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll)
'The relation of things to come'. The Tengu [crow-headed monsters] of Mount Kurama inform Ushiwakamaru of his future destiny and instruct him in military matters.
14 Kurama-ide
'The descent from Mount Kurama'. Ushiwakamaru resolves to plot the downfall of the Taira clan and leaves Mount Kurama in secret. He and Yoshitsugu make for northern Japan on horseback and lodge at an inn owned by the latter.
15, 16 Eboshi-ori (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
cf. Watson, p. 134 (Jurokudan); an example in three volumes (the middle volume wanting) is in Nara Kyoiku Daigaku [Nara University of Education] (https://www.nara-edu.ac.jp/LIB/ehon/ekai.htm)
'The hat-maker'. After completing his military training, Ushiwakamaru seeks out a hat-maker and performs his own genbuku [coming of age] ceremony, taking the name Yoshitsune.
17 Koshigoe
The first episode dealing with the tragic aftermath of Yoshitsune's great victories and his eventual hunting-down and death at the hand of his half-brother Yoritomo. Yoshitsune visits Yoritomo at Kamakura, the new shogunal capital, but is forbidden to enter and is made to wait at Koshigoe, just outside. Benkei, the superhuman warrior-monk who accompanies him to the end, writes a letter to Yoritomo on his behalf, pledging his loyalty and unsuccessfully alerting Yoritomo to the false testimony of Kajiwara Kagetoki.
18 Horikawa youchi
Also called Yoshitsune Horikawa youchi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 143
'The night attack at the Horikawa River'. Kajiwara Kagetoki warns Yoritomo of the threat posed by Yoshitsune, who is trying to raise an army at Kyoto, and advises him to order an assassination attempt. The treacherous monk Tosa Shozon, disguised as a pilgrim, is captured by Yoshitsune but convinces him of his innocence and is released, only to launch an attack in the night on Yoshitsune's camp at the Horikawa river. Yoshitsune is saved by his beloved concubine Shizuka who wakes him and fights by his side; at length, with the help of Benkei, Tosa is captured and beheaded.
19 Shikoku-ochi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148
'The flight into Shikoku': the first stage of Yoshitsune's flight from his half-brother's forces. Yoshitsune makes his way to Shikoku (the smallest of Japan's four main islands) and establishes an independent jurisdiction, but his fleet is shipwrecked in a storm brought about by the vengeful ghosts of the Taira clan and most of his men are drowned. The castaways are washed up at Ashiya bay, where the local warlord attempts to capture Yoshitsune and hand him over to Yoritomo but is prevented by Benkei, who slays fifty-three of his men.
20 Togashi
Better known in other versions as Ataka (No) or Kanjincho (kabuki), this is by far the most famous episode from the tale of Yoshitsune's flight. Thanks to the ingenuity of Benkei, Yoshitsune and his dwindling band successfully trick their way past a checkpoint manned by Yoritomo's vassal Lord Togashi. Yoshitsune is disguised as a porter and Benkei pretends to read from a fictitious kanjincho [subscription list] in order to convince the guards that he is a monk on a fund-raising trip.
21 Oi-sagashi
'The backpack-search'. The fugitives' oi [backpacks] are searched by warriors loyal to the authorities in Kamakura. Despite their suspicions the party manages to escape but suffers another shipwreck.
22, 23 Yashima (parts 1 and 2)
Also called Yashima no ikusa
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; a late sixteenth-century version in two scrolls, in the Spencer Collection, New York Public Library
A story within a story. The fugitives, disguised as travelling monks, come across an old nun in an isolated house. Benkei tells her of the fate of her two sons, Yoshitsune's loyal followers Sato Tadanobu and his younger brother Tsuginobu. The latter saved Yoshitsune by putting himself in the way of an arrow fired at his master at the battle of Yashima in 1185, while the former covered Yoshitsune's retreat during his flight through the mountains of Yoshino to the south of Kyoto. Having completed this narration Yoshitsune and Benkei reveal their true identity and the episode concludes with their arrival at Takadachi (see below).
24 Kiyoshige
The heroic deaths of Yoshitsune's followers Suruga Kiyoshige and Ise Yoshimori on their unsuccessful mission to Kamakura to plead their master's innocence.
25, 26 Takadachi (parts 1 and 2)
Also called Yoshitsune Takadachi
Other instances:
Watson, p. 149; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll); Daitokyu Memorial Library
The final destruction of Yoshitsune and his band following the death of Fujiwara no Hidehira, an aged warlord who had offered him protection at Takadachi in Hiraizumi.
E. Sogamono, episodes taken from Soga monogatari, the tale of the revenge taken by the two Soga brothers, Sukenari and Tokimune, on Kudo Suketsune, their father's murderer
27 Genbuku Soga
'The Sogas' coming of age'. Tokimune, who has been sent to become a monk, meets his father's murderer when the latter visits his temple as a member of the shogun's retinue. Suketsune tries to win the boy's favour by presenting him with a sword which Tokimune will eventually use to kill him. In the second part of this episode Tokimune abandons his priestly avocation and, having rejoined his brother, undergoes the genbuku [coming of age] ceremony.
28, 29 Wada sakamori (parts 1 and 2)
'The feast for Wada'. The brothers plan to kill Suketsune during a hunt organized by Yoritomo at the foot of Mount Fuji. Sukenari bids farewell to his lover Tora, but his plans are interrupted when Wada Yoshimori, Lord of Sagami, pays a formal call on her father and a great feast is held. Following a breach of courtesy a fight breaks out between Sukenari and Asahina, the strongest of Wada's men. In the nick of time Tokimune comes to the rescue and, in the ensuing struggle, escapes from the gigantic Asahina by an abrupt movement in which the lower part of his armour is torn away.
30 Kosode Soga
Other instances:
Watson, p. 145; Rinsendo book catalogue no. 81 (Kyoto, Jan. 2002), cat. no. 14
'The Soga and the kimono'. Tokimune is reconciled with his mother, who had previously attempted to foil the revenge plot, and departs with his brother for Mount Fuji.
31 Tsurugi sandan
Also called Tsurugi Soga
Other instances:
Watson, p. 151; Chester Beatty Library128 (scroll)
'The praising of the swords'. The abbot of the temple in Hakone where Tokimune was brought up presents each of the brothers with swords, called respectively Onikiri and Kumokiri, and explains the illustrious pedigree of the two blades. The first was used by an earlier warrior, Minamoto no Yorimitsu (Raiko), to slay the Shutendoji monster, while the latter was presented to the temple by none other than Yoshitsune.
32, 33 Youchi Soga (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; British Library, Or. 12468
'The night attack of the Soga'. Having identified the correct tent and found Suketsune asleep, Tokimune is about to strike off his head when Sukenari warns him of the impropriety of slaying a sleeping enemy. Suketsune is woken by the ensuing commotion and immediately killed.
34 Jubangiri (part 2 only)
'The tenth cut'. The brothers kill nine of Suketsune's men but a tenth man kills Sukenari. In part 2, Yoritomo wishes to takes pity on Tokimune and appoint him one of his vassals, but Tokimune, who has lost all will to live following his brother's death, is eventually put to death. A temple is erected to the boys' memory at the foot of Mount Fuji.
F. Taiheikimono, episode drawn from Taiheiki, a chronicle covering the fourteenth-century wars (see also Lot 70)
35, 36 Shinkyoku (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148; Takayama Fujihiko, Otogizoshi (Nihon no bijutsu, 52; Tokyo: Shibundo, 1976), fig. 108; Stephan Graf von der Schulenburg (ed.), Mönche, Monster, schöne Damen : japanische Malerei, Buch- und Holzschnittkunst des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts in Frankfurt am Main (Exhibition catalogue, Museum für Angewandte Kunst Frankfurt/Main; Berlin: Mann, 2000), cat. no. 9
'New stories'. Prince Takanaga (1311-37) falls in love with a girl but has to travel from the capital to Shikoku. She follows him under the protection of his retainer Hata. Her ship is captured by pirates but Hata kills himself so that his ghost will frighten them so much that they release the girl and she is reunited with his master.
G. Tokuyumono, 'special items'
37 Iruka
The story of Minister Iruka's death at the hands of Fujiwara no Kamatari (614-69).
38, 39 Yuriwaka daijin (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 152; a copy in three volumes, 17.4 cm. x 24.8 cm., on loan to the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass.; British Library
The deeds of the hero Minister Yuriwaka; in the kowakamai version he lived in the time of Emperor Saga (809-23) and, anachronistically, prevented a Mongol invasion. Parallels to the story of Odysseus make it possible that this tale was further embroidered after the arrival of Europeans in the mid-sixteenth century, but some scholars trace all its origins to early Buddhist literature.
40, 41 Shida (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 148; Takayama Fujihiko, Otogizoshi (Nihon no bijutsu, 52; Tokyo: Shibundo, 1976), fig. 114; Stephan Graf von der Schulenburg (ed.), Mönche, Monster, schöne Damen : japanische Malerei, Buch- und Holzschnittkunst des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts in Frankfurt am Main (Exhibition catalogue, Museum für Angewandte Kunst Frankfurt/Main; Berlin: Mann, 2000), cat. no. 8, in three volumes.
The tale of the samurai Shida Kotaro's struggles to recover his rightful inheritance, this is the longest of all kowakamai texts.
42, 43 Manju (parts 1 and 2)
Other instances:
Watson, p. 146; Tenri Library, 2580
Miraculous tales concerning the tenth-century warrior Minamoto no Mitsunaka (Manju).
44 Choryo
The story of the Chinese Han-dynasty hero (second century BC) Zhang Liang, set in a Buddhist context. The bodhisattva Kannon sends Zhang Liang [Choryo] to a distant land to learn the arts of war. He meets a sage on a bridge over a raging stream and when the latter's shoe falls into the water shows his filial piety by plunging into the waves and snatching the shoe from a huge serpent. Choryo is subsequently received into the Western Paradise.
H. Shugimono, 'blessing pieces'
45 Yumeawase
'Dream-gathering'. Adachi Morinaga, a retainer of the banished Yoritomo, dreams of his master's future conquests. The dream is interpreted by Oba Kageyoshi.
46 Umazoroe
'Marshalling the horses'. Yoritomo reviews his troops before his campaign against the Taira.
47 Kuketsu no kai
'The nine-hole shell'. Yoritomo has his young retainers compete to collect auspicious awabi shells. The winner is Chichibu Rokuro who stays under water for so long that limpets and barnacles attach themselves to his body.
NOTES
1 Araki Shigeru et. al. (eds.), Kowakamai: Yuriwaka daijin hoka [Kowakamai: Yuriwaka daijin and other stories] (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1979 [Toyo Bunko no. 355]).
2 Ago Toranoshin et. al. (eds.), Kowaka bukyoku kenkyu [Studies in kowaka dance recital], vol. 6 (Tokyo: Miyai Shoten, 1989), pp. 379-524. It was evidently intended to transcribe and reproduce the remainder of the Kan'ei edition at a later stage, but Ago's mai no hon project came to an end with volume 10 before this work could be carried out.
3 William Watson, 'Nara-e-hon', in William Watson (ed.), Artistic Personality and Decorative Style in Japanese Art, (London: Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, 1977), (121-64).
4 Sendai-shi Hakubutsukan [Sendai City Museum], Daimyoke no konrei [Daimyo weddings] (Sendai, 2000), cat. no. 73.
5 Inoue Muneo et. al. (eds.), Nihon kotenseki shoshigaku jiten [Dictionary of Japanese bibliography] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1999), p. 533, s.v. Mai no hon.
6 Iwanami Shoten, Kokusho somokuroku [A comprehensive catalogue of (pre-1868) Japanese books] vol. 7 (Tokyo, 1969), p. 425, s.v. Mai no hon.
7 The Katei Bunko set is listed at https://kateibunko.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/katei/katei5/bunrui/01- 02_0.html
8 Richard Zumwinkle, Nara Picture Books (a translation of Shimizu Yutaka, Nara ehon-ko [A study of Nara ehon]; Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1960).
9 Araki, p. 351.
10 Roland Schneider, Kowakamai: Sprache und Stil einer mittelalterlichen japanischen Rezitationskunst (Hamburg: Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, 1968), pp. 66- 79.
11 Nara Ehon Kokusai Kenkyu Kaigi [International Conference for the Study of Nara ehon], Zaigai Nara ehon [Nara ehon in foreign collections] (Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoen, 1981), cat. no. 9.