AN EXTREMELY RARE BRONZE FIGURE OF BUDDHA

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Buddhism:The Light of AsiaThis sale features fourteen masterworks of Buddhist art that reveal both the diversity and the continuity of the Buddhist tradition through various media, cultures, and chronological periods. From China, Nepal, Tibet, and Japan, the works range in date from the fifth-sixth century to the eighteenth century and embrace diverse media, including sculptures, painting, and textiles.Harvard professor Kenneth K.S. Chen once termed Buddhism “the light of Asia”, partly as a play on the word “enlightenment” but, more importantly, as a means of underscoring the role the religion played as a constant in the various Asian cultures to which Buddhism spread.1 Indeed, though Buddhism evolved over time, its basic tenets remained the same as it spread from culture to culture, just as its iconographic types remained recognizable from one culture to the next. Focusing on Buddhism itself and the subjects of Buddhist art, this short essay will explore continuities while also touching on differences.THE BUDDHA AND THE ORIGINS OF BUDDHISMSiddhartha Gautama (traditionally, c. 563–c. 483 BC), who would become the Buddha, was born in the Lumbini Grove in the small state of Kapilavastu, in present-day Nepal.2 Born into the Shakya clan as a crown prince, he was a member of the Kshatriya, or Warrior, caste; according to the religious and societal rules of the day, he should have become a warrior and eventually to have succeeded his father as king. At the time of his birth sages predicted that he would become either a great ruler or a great religious teacher. Fearing that Siddhartha might indeed take up the religious life, which would violate the rules of his caste — the performance of religious and priestly duties being the domain of members of the Brahmin caste — his father, King Suddhodana, kept his son within the confines of the palace, training him in the martial arts and providing him with everything he could want, so that he would not be distracted from the warrior-statesman path. After leading a sheltered existence filled with luxury and pleasure, Siddhartha at age 29 ventured outside the palace on four excursions that have become known as the Four Encounters. In those excursions, he happened first upon an old man, then a sick man, then a corpse, and finally an ascetic. Upon reflection, he realized that the only individual who seemed to be at peace with himself and with the world was the ascetic, which prompted him to leave the palace, rejecting all claims to his inheritance and to his father’s throne, and to espouse the religious life.After six years of questioning many wise teachers and holy men and after experimenting with the different paths to enlightenment that they taught, from extreme asceticism to over-indulgence, Siddhartha came to understand that the proper mode of existence was the Middle Path, which advocated consuming only that which one truly needs and scrupulously avoiding extremes. He further came to understand that the main obstacle to enlightenment and thus to release from the samsara cycle of birth and rebirth is desire, which led him to propose and promulgate the Four Noble Truths—known in Sanskrit as the Catvari aryasatyani and in Chinese as the Sishengdi —which constitute the basic, foundational teachings of Buddhism:1 — All life is suffering2 — Suffering arises from desire3 — To eliminate suffering, one must eliminate desire4 — To eliminate desire, one must follow the Eight-fold PathWith understanding of the Middle Path and of the Four Noble Truths in place, Siddhartha at age 35 achieved enlightenment (Sanskrit, bodhi; Chinese, puti) while meditating under the Bodhi Tree. From that time onward Siddhartha has been known as the Buddha, meaning “the Enlightened One”, or, more specifically, as the Buddha Shakyamuni, “Shakyamuni” meaning “Sage of the Shakya Clan”. After attaining enlightenment, the Buddha preached his first sermon in the Deer Park in Sarnath, in present-day Uttar Pradesh, that first sermon metaphorically termed “Setting in Motion the "Wheel of the Law”, the term “Wheel of the Law” (Sanskrit, dharmachakra) emblemizing Buddhist teachings. For the remainder of his 80 years, the Buddha preached his doctrine (Sanskrit, dharma) in an effort to help other sentient being reach enlightenment. Upon his death, he entered into nirvana.The goal of Buddhism, like that of all traditional Indian religions, was not simply rebirth in a paradise but release from the samsara cycle of birth and rebirth. Known as nirvana, that release resulted in a cessation of existence and was achieved through the accumulation of large stores of meritorious karma amassed by doing good works, by observing the Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, and by following his Eight-Fold Path.THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHISM AND MAJOR SCHOOLSEarly Buddhism—often called Hinayana Buddhism, or the “Lesser Vehicle”— considered the Buddha not a deity but an exemplary mortal whose way of life and path to enlightenment could be taken as a model for working out one’s own “salvation”. In that sense, all matters pertaining to an individual’s enlightenment were left to the individual himself with no assistance from or intervention of others. In Theravada Buddhism (“Doctrine of the Elders”), the more respectful name for the tradition, the ideal is the arhat, or “one who is worthy” (Chinese, aluohan or luohan), a “perfected person” who has attained nirvana. In other Buddhist traditions that term is often used for individuals who have attained enlightenment, or are far advanced along the path of enlightenment, but who have not yet entered nirvana and reached full Buddhahood. Since earliest times down to the present, Theravada Buddhism has been the predominant religion of continental Southeast Asia (Thailand, Myanmar/Burma, Cambodia, and Laos) and Sri Lanka. Rather than representing the Buddha himself, early Theravadans indicated his presence through such aniconic symbols as a throne, a set of footprints, the Wheel of the Law, or a stupa, the hemispherical structure symbolizing the aristocratic burial mound in which the Buddha’s ashes were said to have been buried after the cremation of his remains.Often called “the Greater Vehicle”, Mahayana Buddhism rose to prominence in India in the first century AD, splitting from the Theravada school. In contrast to Theravada Buddhism, with its emphasis on monastic life, the Mahayana school promises salvation to all who sincerely seek it, monk and laity alike. Mahayana Buddhism sees the Buddha Shakyamuni not only as a deity but as one of a host of Buddhas, all of whom are considered deities. Mahayana Buddhism, which is practiced in a variety of forms in China, Tibet, Japan, and Korea, is typically concerned with altruistically oriented spiritual practice as embodied in the Bodhisattva Ideal, whereas the Theravada tradition embodies the Arhat Ideal. Meaning “enlightened being”, a bodhisattva (Chinese, pusa) is a benevolent, selfless being who has gained enlightenment but who has postponed entry into nirvana in order to help other sentient beings achieve enlightenment, thus embodying the Mahayana ideal of delivering all living creatures from suffering. Bodhisattvas are able to assist others through the transfer of meritorious karma from their enormous stores to those who are in need. By contrast, Buddhas are portrayed in Mahayana literature as concerned only remotely with worldly affairs.Mahayana Buddhism is an umbrella concept for a great variety of sects, from the Tantric Sects found in Tibet and Nepal, which espouse secret yoga teachings, to the Pure Land Sects, which are found in China, Korea, and Japan and which rely on simple faith in the Buddha Amitabha. The Mahayana school of India also gave birth to inward-looking Chan Buddhism, which spread to China and Korea and then crossed the straits to Japan and flowered as Japanese Zen Buddhism. For followers of Chan Buddhism, the path to enlightenment is meditation. Buddhas and bodhisattvas are typically depicted in the Mahayana tradition, as are a variety of minor deities, arhats, and selected abbots and monks.Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism generally are categorized as Exoteric Buddhism as their teaching are based on the sutras, or sacred texts, and can be read by all who are literate. By contrast, Tantric Buddhism is characterised as Esoteric Buddhism because, in addition to teachings based on the sutras, it features secret yogic teachings that are not written down but are memorized and passed orally from teacher to initiate, as they are considered too powerful and too open to misinterpretation for the uninitiated to hear. The Chinese term Xianmi fojiao embraces both exoteric and esoteric traditions.Sometimes considered a form of Mahayana Buddhism but sometimes considered a separate, third form of Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism—also known as Vajrayana Buddhism, the “Diamond Vehicle”, and the “Adamantine Vehicle”—developed in India and neighboring countries, notably Tibet. It is a complex and multifaceted system of Buddhist thought and practice; its appearance and development marks the transition from Mahayana speculative thought to the enactment of Buddhist ideals in individual life. The practice of Tantric Buddhism is intricately connected with the mandala, which is a spiritual and ritual diagram symbolizing the universe. The principal form of Buddhism in Tibet, the Vajrayana tradition is also strong in Japan, where the main Esoteric sects are the Shingon and Tendai sects, both of which were introduced to Japan from China in the early 9th century. Apart from images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, the Tantric pantheon includes many wrathful deities, who express the Buddha’s anger, not at individuals per se, but at their misdeeds. Because transmission of the religion’s doctrines and beliefs from teacher to initiate plays such an important role in the Vajrayana tradition, monks, abbots, and lamas are frequently depicted in Tantric paintings and sculptures.BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY AND SUBJECT MATTERBuddhist images fall into two major categories: Deities and non-deities. Those two categories can be subdivided as follows:Four Basic Categories of Buddhist Deities1 — Buddhas / Fo2 — Bodhisattvas / Pusa3 — Vidyarajas / Mingwang4 — Others (Apsaras, Guardians, etc.)Non-Deities1 — Arhats / Luohan2 — Buddha’s disciples3 — Abbots, monks, lamas“Buddha” means “the Enlightened One”.3 The Buddha is an individual who has attained enlightenment and has entered into nirvana. Presented in the guise of a monk, the Buddha generally is depicted with a single head, two arms, and two legs; he may be shown standing or seated and always displays a benevolent countenance (lots 2901, 2902, 2903, 2911, and 2913). He wears a monk’s robes and may be shown either barefoot or with sandals. Buddhas typically are portrayed without jewelry, though Buddhas from Southeast Asia and Tibet may wear crowns and other jewelry, particularly those Buddhas associated with the mandala. His distended earlobes, which resulted from the heavy earrings that he wore in hisyouth as a crown prince, symbolize his rejection of worldly life and his embrace of the religious life. He may be represented with a shaven pate or with short hair arranged either in wavy locks or in small, snail-shell curls (lots 2902, 2903, and 2911). The sutras state that he bears the “32 Marks of a Great Man”; among those marks, the ones typically portrayed are the urna, or circular mark at the center of the forehead, the webbed fingers and toes, and the ushnisha, which is the cranial protuberance atop his head that symbolizes the expanded wisdom that he gained at his enlightenment. In fact, the ushnisha is the Buddha’s diagnostic iconographic feature, as no other being bears that characteristic. The texts also state that the Buddha’s body is radiant and thus emits light.As previously mentioned, Mahayana Buddhism, the predominant form in traditional China, teaches that there are an infinite number of Buddhas, all of whom are deities. As the most recent to have appeared and thus to have lived in this world, Shakyamuni is often called the Historical Buddha. Of the many Buddhas, those most typically encountered in the Mahayana tradition are four:Shakyamuni, the Historical BuddhaAmitabha, the Buddha of Infinite LightBhais.ajyaguru-vaiduryaprabharaja, the Medicine BuddhaVairochana, also called Mahavairochana, the Supreme BuddhaAdditional Buddhas associated with mandalas appear in thearts of the Tantric tradition.The various Buddhas are distinguished either by an attribute they hold—the Medicine Buddha holds a small medicine jar, for example—or by the mudra in which their hands are arranged. A ritual hand gesture, a mudra symbolizes a particular action, power, or attitude. The most frequently encountered mudras, all of which are associated with Shakyamuni, are the following:Dhyana-mudra = MeditationThe Buddha is shown seated, his hands in his lap, the right hand atop the leftBhumisparsha-mudra = EnlightenmentThe Buddha is shown seated, his left hand in his lap palm up, his right hand extended over his right knee in order to touch the earth to call it to witness his enlightenment (lot 2903)Dharmachakra-mudra = Preaching the First SermonThe Buddha may be shown seated or standing, his hands before his chest as if turning a wheelAbhaya-mudra = Do not fear = PreachingThe Buddha may be shown seated or standing, his right hand (occasionally the left) is raised, palm outward, as if in blessing (lots 2901, 2902, 2911)Varada-mudra = Boon, or gift, givingThe Buddha may be shown seated or standing, his left hand (occasionally the right) is lowered, palm outward (lots 2901, 2902, 2911)Like Shakyamuni, the Buddha Amitabha (lot 2912) typically has his hands arranged in the meditation mudra or in the abhaya and varada-mudras, indicating that he is preaching. In the case of Amitabha’s mudras, however, the hands are positioned so that one finger of each hand touches the thumb, forming a circle, thereby distinguishing Amitabha from the otherwise similarly presented Shakyamuni. In those mudras in which fingers form a circle with the thumb, the particular fingers touching the thumb indicate the level of paradise on which Amitabha is preaching (or, in other instances, the level of paradise on which he is meditating).According to traditional iconographic conventions, the lapiscolored medicine jar that the Medicine Buddha holds in his left hand contains nectar from the myrobalan fruit (lot 2913). Extended over his right knee, his right hand has the palm outward, forms the varada-mudra, and typically holds a single myrobalan fruit between thumb and index finger.Vairochana, the Supreme Buddha, typically appears seated in a yogic posture with legs crossed, his hands held before his chest in the jnanamusti-mudra, also called the bodhyagr-mudra, in which the right hand grasps the extended index finger of the left hand, a gesture symbolizing concealed knowledge.“Bodhisattva” means “Enlightened Being”. A bodhisattva is a benevolent being who has attained enlightenment but who has postponed entry into nirvana in order to assist other sentient beings in gaining enlightenment (lots 2905, 2906, 2908, 2909). Once all sentient beings have achieved enlightenment, they—and all bodhisattvas—will become Buddhas. Bodhisattvas are presented in the guise of an Indian prince of old, a reference to Siddhārtha Gautama’s worldly status before he became the Buddha Shakyamuni. Generally depicted with a single head, two arms, and two legs (lot 2905), bodhisattvas in fact may be shown with multiple heads and limbs (lots 2906, 2908, 2909). Richly attired, bodhisattvas are represented with long hair often arranged in a tall coiffure, or bun, atop the head and with long strands cascading over the shoulders. A crown sometimes surrounds the high coiffure (lots 2908, 2909), which must not be mistaken for an ushnisha. Bodhisattvas wear ornamental scarves, dhotis of rich silk brocade, and a wealth of jewelry that includes necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and anklets. Like Buddhas, bodhisattvas are shown with distended earlobes, but, unlike the Buddhas, they wear earrings. They may be barefoot or wearing sandals. Though not positioned in prescribed mudras, bodhisattvas’ hands often appear in the anjali-mudra, a gesture indicating veneration in which the hands are clasped before the chest, palms touching, as if in prayer (lot 2906).Bodhisattvas may be presented individually, but they often are associated with particular Buddhas. Thus, Bodhisattvas Manjushri and Samantabhadra typically flank the Buddha Shakyamuni, while Bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta generally appear on either side of the Buddha Amitabha. In like manner Bodhisattvas Suryaprabha and Chandraprabha stand to the left and right of the Medicine Buddha. As the bodhisattva of transcendental wisdom, Manjushri holds a book and sometimes a sword, as well. A spiritual emanation of Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara is identified by the small image of Amitabha that appears at the front of the bodhisattva’s crown or coiffure. As the “Sunlight” and “Moonlight” bodhisattvas, Suryaprabha and Chandraprabha sport a sun disc and a crescent moon, respectively, in their coiffures as iconographic emblems. In a variation on that iconographic interpretation, Bodhisattva Suryaprabha, the “Sunlight Bodhisattva”, appears red in lot 2913, while Chandraprabha, the “Moonlight Bodhisattva”, appears white.Two bodhisattvas that often appear individually are Maitreya and Ekadasamukha-Avalokiteshvara, or the Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara (lot 2906). As the Future Buddha, Maitreya will be the next Buddha to appear in this world; he sometimes is presented as a bodhisattva, sometimes as a Buddha. A small stupa or pagoda in the headdress identifies an image as Maitreya.A deity’s multiple heads and limbs simply indicate that the deity has the ability to assist more beings than can a deity with but one head, two arms and two legs. In the case of the Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara, after struggling to comprehend the needs of so many in distress, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara’s head split into eleven pieces. The Buddha Amitabha, upon seeing his spiritual emanation’s plight, granted him eleven heads to help him hear the cries of those who are suffering. Upon hearing and comprehending those cries, Avalokiteshvara attempted to reach out to all those needing help, but found that his two arms shattered into pieces. Once more, Amitabha came to his aid and gave him a thousand arms to reach out to those in need.“Vidyaraja” literally means “King of Light”. Like “bodhisattva”, the term refers to beings who have attained enlightenment— hence, the association with light—but who have postponed entry into nirvana in order to assist other sentient beings in gaining enlightenment. Unlike the bodhisattvas, the vidyaraja are also a literal manifestation of the Buddha’s anger, not at sentient beings per se but at their wrongdoings. Once all sentient beings have attained enlightenment, all vidyarajas— and all bodhisattvas—will become Buddhas. They are generally associated with Tantric sects of Buddhism and occur most frequently in Tibetan and Japanese art. Generally associated with the Tantric sects of Buddhism, vidyarajas are presented in the guise of an Indian prince, but typically are shown as dark, though occasionally as red. As expressions of the Buddha’s anger, they display a wrathful, even ferocious, demeanor. They may be depicted with a single head, two arms, and two legs, but they in fact often are shown with multiple heads and limbs. They hold different iconographic symbols, depending upon the particular vidyaraja represented; Achala, best known of the vidyarajas, holds a sword and a coiled rope, for example, the sword to cut away the accumulated bad karma from misdeeds and the coiled rope as a lifeline to pull the individual back to the proper path to enlightenment.The “Others” category of deities includes a variety of important yet lesser, miscellaneous deities that vary from culture to culture. Among those deities are apsaras, or celestial figures akin to angels that pay homage to the Buddha and often make offerings or play musical instruments. The category also includes Yama, King of the Underworld (lot 2904 and lot 2910, part); and the Ten Kings of Hell. In addition, guardian figures populate that category, both the dvarapala figures that stand at the entrance to a temple and ward away evil spirits while safeguarding the temple’s sacred precincts and the lokapala, or Four Heavenly Kings, that typically stand near the corners of a temple altar (lot 2910, part). Sets of twelve guardian kings occasionally surround around temple altars, occasionally in association with the Medicine Buddha but more typically in the temples of Tantric Buddhist sects. The well-muscled but scantily clad dvarapala generally wear only a loin cloth, while the Four Heavenly Kings and the twelve guardian kings usually wear military armor.Most typical among the non-deity images that appear in the arts of Buddhism are the Buddha’s disciples and the arhats, or luohan. As “perfected beings” or “worthies” who have gained enlightenment but have not yet left this world to enter nirvana, they have special powers and stand as models to be followed by other mortals. All sects of Buddhism revere their patriarchs, abbots, and famous teachers, so those frequently are represented as well, particularly among the Tantric sects (lots 2907, 2914).PRESENTATION OF IMAGESAlthough typically presented one-by-one in museums and galleries, Buddhist images in fact almost always appeared ingroups in their original temple contexts, those groups usually odd-numbered and hierarchically arranged, with a Buddha at the center flanked on either side by a bodhisattva, perhaps with a guardian figure at the outer edge of the assemblage and two or four apsaras hovering above (lot 2913). In addition, sculptures generally appeared in concert with paintings— both wall paintings and hanging scrolls and banners—so that the original context, rich and varied, suggested the celestial paradises in which the Buddhas and other deities reside. Of course, some sculptures appeared individually on a sub-altar or in a shrine in order to honor a particular deity. Small images of deities, such as the sculptures representing Marichi (Chinese, Molizhitian) (lot 2908) and Vasudhara (Caiyuan Tianmu) (lot 2909) may have been made for a temple or might have been acquired by an individual or family for worship in a home shrine. In temples, such images often were incorporated into sculptural mandalas.Virtually all bronze sculptures originally were gilded, both to make the images sufficiently sumptuous for presentation to a deity and to suggest the light that, according to the sacred texts, emanates from the bodies of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas (lots 2901, 2902, 2903, 2906, 2908, 2909, 2911, 2914). In Tibetan sculptures, sometimes only the flesh portions were gilded, allowing the ungilded copper or bronze portions to suggest the robes, thus injecting a note of descriptive color. In addition, most traditional wooden and stone sculptures originally boasted pigments—and sometimes gold leaf on the faces and other flesh portions—to make them as naturalistic and as radiant as possible (lots 2904, 2905). Few such sculptures retain the pigments of their youth, but many bear traces of the rich colors.Too broad in scope for present purposes, another essay would trace the development and evolution of Buddhist art styles, from their origins in northern India through Central and Southeast Asia and thence to China, Korea, and Japan. The artistic styles not only evolved over time but appropriated elements from each culture to which Buddhism spread, so that the styles reveal the time and place where each individual work of art was created. By contrast, as Buddhism spread from its homeland throughout Asia and beyond, its iconographic types maintained a continuity and consistency, even if with slight variations. Thus, a Buddha is always recognizable as a Buddha, no matter when or where it was created, just as a bodhisattva is always identifiable as a bodhisattva because its basic iconographic characteristics remain the same from place to place and period to period. Thus, at least in terms of continuity of religious ideals and iconographic types, Buddhism rightly can be called “the light of Asia, as Kenneth Chen long ago characterised it.Robert D. Mowry,Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus,Harvard Art Museums, and Senior Consultant, Christie’s

AN EXTREMELY RARE BRONZE FIGURE OF BUDDHA

CHINA, NORTHERN DYNASTIES, 6TH CENTURY

Details

AN EXTREMELY RARE BRONZE FIGURE OF BUDDHA
CHINA, NORTHERN DYNASTIES, 6TH CENTURY
The Buddha stands in a vertical posture, with his right hand raised in abhayamudra and his left extended in varadamudra. The folds of his diaphanous robes fall in cascades across his torso and legs, and the downcast expression of his face is flanked by pendulous earlobes and surmounted by snailshell curls over the ushnisha.
11 ½ in. (29.2 cm.) high

Provenance

The Dharma Collection, Israel, acquired from Spink & Son, Ltd., London, 1980

Literature

Spink & Son, Ltd., Octagon, London, vol. XVII, number 4, Winter 1980

Brought to you by

Ruben Lien

chinese@christies.com +852 2760 1766

Lot Essay

The mid-6th century brought the downfall of the Wei dynasty and the split of once-unified China into two separate polities: The Northern Qi (AD 550-577) in the east and the Northern Zhou (AD 557-581) in the west. The Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou existed as independent kingdoms for less than a half-century before they were subsumed by the Sui dynasty (AD 581-618), but during that short period, they had a profound infuence on the Buddhist art of China.

The preceding Northern Wei kings were massive patrons of Buddhist art, commissioning large-scale projects of rock-cut sculpture and temples at the sites of Yungang and Longmen, among others. The representative style of the Buddhist figures at these sites owed much to the 2nd-3rd century Gandharan and Mathuran schools of Kushan India, which was transmitted into China via the trade routes of Central Asia. The Buddhist art of Gandhara was particularly preoccupied with the rendering of drapery, and the artisans of the Northern Wei took especial relish in that regard as well. The Northern Wei images of Buddha, particularly in the beginning of the 6th century, are characterised by large geometric and triangular swaths of billowing folds, visible, for example, in the masterly gilt-bronze altarpiece of Buddha Shakyamuni with Buddha Prabhutaratna, now at the Musée Guimet (see H. Munsterberg, Chinese Buddhist Bronzes, New York, 1967, fig. 34).

The downfall of the Wei dynasty and rise of the Northern Qi and Zhou brought with it an innovative Buddhist style, perhaps consciously adopted by the new rulers as a visual signifier of the change in power. At this time, the Gupta sculptural style, appropriately nicknamed the International style, pervaded much of Asia from its origins in central India. Characterised by a sensuous rendering of the human form only partially obscured by diaphanous robes, with the hair detailed in elegant “snail-shell” curls, the Gupta style found acceptance in the courts of the Northern Qi, and to a certain extent, the Northern Zhou.

While many of the Buddhist figures of the Northern Qi display the soft contours that typify the Gupta style (see, for example, a polychromed and gilt-limestone figure of Buddha from The Collection of Robert H. Ellsworth, sold at Christie’s New York, 20 March 2015, lot 755), the images of Buddha and of bodhisattvas of the Northern Zhou are significantly more robust and columnar, with rectangular faces and heavy facial features. These characteristics are exemplified in the present figure, with its wide shoulders, upright stance, and almost rectangular head. With the diaphanous rendering of the drapery, particularly over the thighs, and stocky features, the present figure has much in common with a large stone torso of Buddha, attributed to the Northern Zhou, now at the Nelson-Atkins Museum (Fig. A).

The rise of the Sui dynasty in AD 582 brought an end to the kingdoms of the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou, but their newly adopted sculptural style for Buddhist art lived on through the short-lived Sui, and had a pronounced effect on the naturalistic art of the Tang dynasty (AD 618-907).

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