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Lot Essay
Golden Form, Celestial Grace
Appreciation of an Imperial Yuan Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva (Guanyin) Figure
Huang Chunhe - Capital Museum Researcher
In August 2014, Australian independent scholar Phillip Adams contributed an article to the Hong Kong journal Orientations, titled Imperial Yuan Gilt-Metal Buddhist Sculptures: Stepping Stones to the Early Ming, in which he examined five imperial Yuan sculptures. The following year, in March 2015, Swiss scholar Dr. Robert R. Bigler published an exhibition catalogue, Before Yongle—Chinese and Tibetan-Chinese Sculptures of the 13th and 14th Centuries, illustrating over ten examples of imperial Yuan sculptures. These seminal publications lifted the veil on the once-enigmatic imperial Yuan Buddhist sculptures and signaled the beginning of serious academic research and collecting interest both in China and internationally. Over the past decade, through the efforts of scholars, collectors, and connoisseurs worldwide, imperial Yuan sculptures have surfaced in remarkable numbers. Their stylistic features and craftsmanship have become more clearly understood, while public recognition and appreciation have also deepened significantly. The current gilt bronze Avalokiteśvara figure, to be offered at Christie’s Hong Kong this October, stands as the largest, most stylistically representative, and finest in artistic quality among imperial Yuan sculptures to ever grace the market. It is poised to become a highlight and new focal point within the field of imperial Yuan sculpture.
The figure wears a floral crown, a high bun neatly bound atop the head, with long braids cascading over both shoulders. A jewel appears at the summit of the coiffure, while fluttering ribbons frame the ears, beneath which hang large, purple-black circular earrings. The face is broad and squarish, rendered with exquisite and delicate features: the forehead high and expansive, the brows arched upward with a teardrop-shaped urna set between them. The downcast almond-shaped eyes, their pupils radiating profound compassion, balance the high, straight nose that joins the brows in an elegant ‘Y’ shape. The lips are gently closed, the lower lip fuller, with the corners subtly upturned to suggest a serene, benevolent smile. The face is at once handsome and serene, embodying the Guanyin Bodhisattva’s dharma countenance that harmoniously unites compassion with wisdom. The figure’s sturdy physique and well-defined musculature convey the bearing of an upright and dignified male form. The upper body is bare, adorned with a collar necklace, from which large pendant petals hang below, and a long chain across the torso. Two bead bracelets encircle each of the wrists and ankles, while petal-shaped armlets embellish the arms. A sash is draped gracefully over the shoulders, its ends crossing the abdomen to rest upon the opposite arms, while the hanging part passes under the body and spreads out in front of the seat—an arrangement that reflects a style both distinctive and refined. He is clad in a long skirt, secured at the waist with a belt knotted elegantly at both sides. The skirt is light and finely rendered, clinging naturally to the body. On the thighs and calves, incised and raised lines articulate the texture of the fabric, while the spaces between are intricately decorated with motifs of scrolling vines, cloud motifs, roundels, tortoise-shell patterns, and patch-grid patterns, all arranged with precise layering and clarity. Particularly striking are the delicate, ripple-like folds at the calves and the back, executed with such refinement as to evoke admiration. The treasure belt, both front and back, is further embellished with bead-like yingluo ornaments. The adornments across the figure— the crown, earrings, bracelets, and belt—are inlaid with an array of gemstones, including turquoise, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire, crystal, and rose quartz, producing a vividly colourful and resplendently magnificent brilliance. Seated in a half-lotus pose, with the left leg folded and the right leg extended downward, the head gently tilted to the right, and the waist subtly twisted to the left, the figure conveys a posture that is both graceful and lively. The left hand forms a tarjani mudra (gesture of vigilance) at the chest, right hand rests on the right knee forming a varada mudra (gesture of wish-granting), with a fully blooming utpala flower on each shoulder at shoulder level. Although the pedestal is now lost, a square base plate remains on the underside of the figure, indicating that its original consecratory contents are still preserved. The figure’s form is grand and well-proportioned, its image imbued with solemnity. The craftsmanship is of the highest refinement, the adornment sumptuous, and the condition remarkably well-preserved, altogether exemplifying the distinctive style and superb artistry of imperial Yuan sculpture.
Imperial Yuan sculptures were Tibetan Buddhist works produced by imperial workshops under direct imperial patronage, characterised by Tibetan themes and stylistic influences. They were intimately tied to the religious and political strategies of the Yuan rulers, who revered and promoted Tibetan Buddhism. Historical records note that, in order to promote the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Central Plains, the Yuan emperors constructed numerous temples across regions such as Dadu (today’s Beijing), Shangdu, and Jiangnan. In Dadu alone, more than ten imperial temples were built, including Da Huguo Renwang Si (Great Protecting Benevolent King Temple) and Da Shengshou Wanan Si (Great Temple of Eminent Longevity and Myriad Peace). These temples enshrined a great number of Buddhist statues, all produced by the imperial workshops—specifically the All Artisan Classes in the Imperial Workshops and its subordinate Superintendency for Buddhist Icons (fanxiang yiju si). Yuan dynasty sources referred to such works as fanxiang (Indian icons) or xitian fanxiang (Indian icons from the Western Heaven). Nepalese craftsman Anige (1244-1306) initially worked for these institutions, playing a vital role in the production of Buddhist statues for imperial temples, as ‘many of the statues in the temples of both capitals were made by his hands.’ He ultimately rose to the prestigious positions of Director of All Artisan Classes and Controller of the Imperial Manufactories Commission (Jiangzuoyuan). In the generations that followed, his disciples, such as Liu Yuan, and his sons, Asengge and Ashula, likewise served in these institutions, contributing to the creation of numerous Buddhist sculptures for imperial temples. The Record of Yuan Dynasty Painting and Sculpture (Yuan Dai Hua Su Ji), compiled by the Qing scholar Wen Tingshi, preserves nearly thirty entries documenting Anige, his disciples, and his sons in the production of sculptures for imperial temples. These records provide concrete historical evidence of the close relationship between court-sponsored sculpture-making institutions and the supply and demand of imperial temple sculptures, offering an important foundation for understanding the prominence of imperial Yuan sculpture. While most imperial temples and their sculptures from the Yuan dynasty no longer survive, they remain well documented in historical sources, preserving the rich historical and religious context that underpinned the once-glorious tradition of imperial Yuan sculpture.
Since the recognition of imperial Yuan sculptures in 2014, new examples have continued to surface each year. Some have appeared on the art markets, others have entered the collections of public and private museums in China and internationally, while still others remain enshrined in temples and monasteries in Tibet and beyond. According to incomplete statistics, more than one hundred exemplary imperial Yuan sculptures have been identified to date. In addition, a number of related works of similar style, perhaps referred to as ‘quasi-imperial Yuan sculptures’, are also known. These sculptures encompass a remarkably rich range of themes and types, including gurus, tutelary deities, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Prajnaparamita, luohan, and dharmapālas (protector of the dharma), virtually the full pantheon of Tibetan Buddhist worship. As such, they possess exceptional breadth and representativeness in their design. Although these sculptures vary in theme and form, their style and craftsmanship remain strikingly consistent. Collectively, they embody a distinctive Han-Tibetan synthesis: the Tibetan style draws upon Indian Pala, Nepalese, and indigenous Tibetan traditions, while the Han style integrates elements from Chinese, Mongolian, and Western Xia art. Their shared features are evident in the dignified postures and robust physiques, the broad faces with high, expansive foreheads, the standardised lotus pedestals encircled with full petals, the refined use of metal alloys, and the sumptuous adornment with gemstone inlays across the body. These shared characteristics define the unified stylistic identity of Yuan imperial sculpture, all of which ultimately trace back to a single source: the Yuan Dynasty’s imperial sculpture workshops. Today, these works serve as vital material evidence for the study and authentication of Yuan imperial sculpture, providing an essential foundation for defining their stylistic parameters.
When compared with the established standards of Yuan imperial sculptures, this current figure exemplifies the tradition in four key respects, the first of which is its material alloy bronze, a form of copper combined with zinc. This kind of bronze is of fine, dense quality, with a yellowish tone, thus commonly referred to as huang tong (yellow bronze or brass). It may be said that the Yuan courts marked the beginning of the large-scale production of alloy bronze statues. Prior to this period, most sculptures were cast in bronze, and although alloy bronze works did exist, none attained the level of refinement achieved under the Yuan Dynasty. During the same period, bronze sculptures produced in Tibet, Nepal, and other regions were most often cast in red brass. Alloy bronzes were also popular in Tibet, particularly in the western regions, though their composition differed from that of Yuan imperial sculptures. Tibetan alloy bronzes were made from copper containing natural traces of zinc, whereas Yuan imperial bronzes were deliberately synthesised from copper and zinc. This demonstrates that the use of alloy bronze is a key criterion for identifying Yuan imperial sculptures.
The second is the body form. The figure features a large head, broad shoulders, a high chest, and a narrow waist—sculptural characteristics clearly influenced by the consistent Indian-style sculptures inherited from India’s Pala tradition through Nepal to Tibet. At first glance, the surface bears some resemblance to contemporary Malla sculptures of Nepal, as well as Sakya and Densatil sculptures of Tibet; yet upon closer examination, it reveals distinct characteristics that set it apart, reflecting its unique artistic identity. The face is square and flat, unlike the more pointed faces seen in some foreign sculptural works; the shoulders slope naturally, rather than being raised as in other foreign traditions; and though the head appears large, giving an impression of disproportion, it in fact reflects the transitional sculptural characteristics of imperial Yuan sculptures, bridging inherited traditions with newer expressions. These distinctive features reflect a unique aesthetic sensibility, clearly shaped by the traditional artistic tastes of the Central Plains.
The third aspect pertains to the headwear, clothing ornaments, and sculptural expressions. Head ornaments featuring floral crowns and hair buns are the most characteristic. The floral crown consists of eight petals: five at the front and three at the back. Each petal has a sturdy stem adorned with abundant branches and leaves. At the front, three large and two smaller petals are arranged at varying heights, while the three rear petals are of equal size. This expressive form is exceptionally distinctive, yet it was widely employed in imperial Yuan Bodhisattva sculptures, with numerous examples for comparison—such as a gilt-bronze figure of Marici (goddess of dawn) housed in the Three Gorges Museum in Chongqing. The hair bun consists of rows of braids arranged into a flat, elevated form atop the head, secured by hairbands at the front and back. A precious jewel ornaments the crown of the bun. The intricate braiding is executed with great refinement, resulting in an elegant and striking coiffure. This coiffure clearly derives from Indian P &la sculpture, yet it was equally favoured in imperial Yuan Bodhisattva sculpture. A representative example is a gilt-bronze Bodhisattva figure formerly in the collection of Dr. Robert R. Bigler in Switzerland . The attire consists of the sash and the monk’s skirt, both in form and execution that reflect influence from the Central Plains. This influence is well attested in numerous extant imperial Yuan sculptures. The sash’s style, with its naturalistic drapery folds, had already appeared in the Feilai Peak stone sculptures dating from the 19th to 29th years of the Zhiyuan era (1282-1292) , while the decorative treatment of the monk’s skirt is likewise evident in many gilt-bronze imperial Yuan sculptures. Although the forms and motifs of head ornaments and garments are relatively complex and derived from diverse sources, this imperial Yuan sculpture was rendered in a cohesive manner that consistently reflects the shared stylistic characteristics of its counterparts.
Fourth is the craft of gemstone embellishment. Its crown, earrings, bracelets, belt, and jewelled chains are all inlaid with gems—turquoise and other precious stones—embodying the Buddhist auspicious symbolism of qi bao zhuang yan (seven treasures adornment). The brilliance of jewels and gemstones converges upon the figure, amplifying its dignity and magnificence. The tradition of gem inlay and its associated craftsmanship demonstrably originated in the sculpture-making practices of Tibet and Nepal, as reflected in its frequent appearance in Nepalese Malla and Tibetan Densatil sculptures. This artistic expression is also a defining feature in imperial Yuan sculptures. In the subsequent Ming dynasty, imperial sculptures largely abandoned this intricate practice, with jewelled decorations typically cast integrally with the body. Nonetheless, a very small number of imperial Ming sculptures preserved the tradition of gemstone inlay. Similarly, select Ming sculptures continued Yuan-inspired forms and techniques in crowns, hairstyles, and drapery, collectively attesting to the inseparable artistic lineage linking Yuan and Ming imperial sculpture.
I have previously used both imperial Yuan sculptural remnants in the Central Plains and those discovered across various sites to delineate the development of imperial Yuan sculpture into three stages—early, middle, and late—while summarising the distinct artistic characteristics of each period. The early period, circa 1262–1300, represents a transitional phase in which artistic styles shifted from Indian, Nepalese, and Tibetan sculptures toward Central Plains forms. Representative works include the Tibetan-style stone Buddha sculptures at Feilai Peak in Hangzhou, carved between the 19th and 29th years of the Zhiyuan era (1282-1292). The middle period, circa 1300-1340, saw the consummate fusion of Nepalese and Tibetan styles with Central Plains art, marking the standardisation of the imperial Yuan aesthetic. A typical example is the gilt-bronze Manjushri Bodhisattva figure from the 9th year of the Dade era (1305), now preserved in the Palace Museum. The late period, circa 1340 '1368, exhibits stylistic variations, characterised by a stronger emphasis on Central Plains elements and a general decline in artistic refinement. Representative examples include the bronze Shakyamuni Buddha figure from the 2nd year of Later Zhiyuan era (1336) in the Palace Museum and the relief Buddhas at the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass, Beijing, dating from the 2nd to 5th years of the Zhizheng era (1342-1345). This current figure exhibits flawless form, exceptional craftsmanship, and elaborate adornment. Its details, including the facial features, sash, monk’s skirt, and musculature, are rendered with remarkable precision. The carving demonstrates fine, strong, and fluid lines, reflecting techniques far superior to those of ordinary sculptures. Based on its superior artistic execution, this sculpture can be dated to the early or early-middle period of the Yuan dynasty.
In this past June, I had the privilege of examining a stone Buddha pagoda at Jinshan Temple in Laishui County, Hebei. This pagoda dates to the fourth year of the Yuan’s Dade era (1300). On the stone stele Qian fo she li bao ta ji (Record of the Thousand Buddha Sarira Treasure Pagoda) erected beside it, an inscription reads ‘The main patron of the temple is Grand Master of the Court and Grand Administrator over the Masses, Anige,’ linking the construction of the pagoda to the renowned Nepalese craftsman. To date, this is the only known remains from the Yuan Dynasty with clear documentation connecting Anige to both architectural and Buddhist sculptural activity. The body of the pagoda is carved with nearly a thousand Buddha sculptures across its eight sides, most exhibiting a synthesis of Han and Tibetan artistic features. For instance, the four-sided Buddhas within the line engraved Thousand Buddha motifs display broad, flat faces and naturalistic drapery, clearly demonstrating how the imperial Yuan sculpture style, led by Anige, was influenced by Central Plains art at an early stage. These Buddha sculptures were carved shortly after the statues at Feilai Peak in Hangzhou, predating the Manjushri Bodhisattva in the Palace Museum by five years, and are closely associated with Anige. They provide important reference points for studying the Sinicization of Anige’s sculptural style, the development and evolution of imperial Yuan sculpture, and the dating and stylistic analysis of the current Avalokitesvara figure.
Finally, we turn to the subject matter depicted in this figure. Australian scholar Phillip Adams once identified this figure as Green Tara; however, this attribution is clearly mistaken. Although its posture and pose closely resemble those of Green Tara, it lacks the feminine characteristics typical of that deity. All known imperial Yuan Green Tara sculptures display prominently raised breasts, indicating that this figure does not represent Green Tara, but rather a different subject. Fortunately, this type of Buddha sculpture is documented in Sadhana-mala (A Garland of Means for Attainment), an early Sanskrit compendium of iconographic descriptions, and the Indian Museum preserves extant Pala-period sculptures of the same style. It is consistently identified as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, providing reliable iconographic evidence for the proper designation of this figure. Imperial Yuan sculptures inherited numerous artistic elements from Indian Pala, including the high, flat hair bun and large circular earrings seen on this figure—features directly traceable to Pala art. Based on this artistic lineage, the subject of this figure can be confidently attributed to Pala sculpture. Among known imperial Yuan sculptures, in addition to this figure, there is another Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva figure that appeared at China Guardian’s Spring Auction in May 2024. In the subsequent Ming Dynasty court, this style of Avalokiteśvara became especially popular. Thus, establishing the iconographic identity of this figure provides important historical evidence for the origins of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara sculpture in imperial Ming sculpture and for the continuity of sculptural themes from the Yuan to the Ming Dynasty. Golden Autumn October is a season of harvest. And in this auspicious timing, we are delighted to see this large-size, elegantly designed, and exquisitely crafted imperial Yuan gilt-bronze Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva figure at Christie’s Hong Kong auction. May this rare and magnificent sculpture achieve a resounding success in this golden season.
Appreciation of an Imperial Yuan Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva (Guanyin) Figure
Huang Chunhe - Capital Museum Researcher
In August 2014, Australian independent scholar Phillip Adams contributed an article to the Hong Kong journal Orientations, titled Imperial Yuan Gilt-Metal Buddhist Sculptures: Stepping Stones to the Early Ming, in which he examined five imperial Yuan sculptures. The following year, in March 2015, Swiss scholar Dr. Robert R. Bigler published an exhibition catalogue, Before Yongle—Chinese and Tibetan-Chinese Sculptures of the 13th and 14th Centuries, illustrating over ten examples of imperial Yuan sculptures. These seminal publications lifted the veil on the once-enigmatic imperial Yuan Buddhist sculptures and signaled the beginning of serious academic research and collecting interest both in China and internationally. Over the past decade, through the efforts of scholars, collectors, and connoisseurs worldwide, imperial Yuan sculptures have surfaced in remarkable numbers. Their stylistic features and craftsmanship have become more clearly understood, while public recognition and appreciation have also deepened significantly. The current gilt bronze Avalokiteśvara figure, to be offered at Christie’s Hong Kong this October, stands as the largest, most stylistically representative, and finest in artistic quality among imperial Yuan sculptures to ever grace the market. It is poised to become a highlight and new focal point within the field of imperial Yuan sculpture.
The figure wears a floral crown, a high bun neatly bound atop the head, with long braids cascading over both shoulders. A jewel appears at the summit of the coiffure, while fluttering ribbons frame the ears, beneath which hang large, purple-black circular earrings. The face is broad and squarish, rendered with exquisite and delicate features: the forehead high and expansive, the brows arched upward with a teardrop-shaped urna set between them. The downcast almond-shaped eyes, their pupils radiating profound compassion, balance the high, straight nose that joins the brows in an elegant ‘Y’ shape. The lips are gently closed, the lower lip fuller, with the corners subtly upturned to suggest a serene, benevolent smile. The face is at once handsome and serene, embodying the Guanyin Bodhisattva’s dharma countenance that harmoniously unites compassion with wisdom. The figure’s sturdy physique and well-defined musculature convey the bearing of an upright and dignified male form. The upper body is bare, adorned with a collar necklace, from which large pendant petals hang below, and a long chain across the torso. Two bead bracelets encircle each of the wrists and ankles, while petal-shaped armlets embellish the arms. A sash is draped gracefully over the shoulders, its ends crossing the abdomen to rest upon the opposite arms, while the hanging part passes under the body and spreads out in front of the seat—an arrangement that reflects a style both distinctive and refined. He is clad in a long skirt, secured at the waist with a belt knotted elegantly at both sides. The skirt is light and finely rendered, clinging naturally to the body. On the thighs and calves, incised and raised lines articulate the texture of the fabric, while the spaces between are intricately decorated with motifs of scrolling vines, cloud motifs, roundels, tortoise-shell patterns, and patch-grid patterns, all arranged with precise layering and clarity. Particularly striking are the delicate, ripple-like folds at the calves and the back, executed with such refinement as to evoke admiration. The treasure belt, both front and back, is further embellished with bead-like yingluo ornaments. The adornments across the figure— the crown, earrings, bracelets, and belt—are inlaid with an array of gemstones, including turquoise, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire, crystal, and rose quartz, producing a vividly colourful and resplendently magnificent brilliance. Seated in a half-lotus pose, with the left leg folded and the right leg extended downward, the head gently tilted to the right, and the waist subtly twisted to the left, the figure conveys a posture that is both graceful and lively. The left hand forms a tarjani mudra (gesture of vigilance) at the chest, right hand rests on the right knee forming a varada mudra (gesture of wish-granting), with a fully blooming utpala flower on each shoulder at shoulder level. Although the pedestal is now lost, a square base plate remains on the underside of the figure, indicating that its original consecratory contents are still preserved. The figure’s form is grand and well-proportioned, its image imbued with solemnity. The craftsmanship is of the highest refinement, the adornment sumptuous, and the condition remarkably well-preserved, altogether exemplifying the distinctive style and superb artistry of imperial Yuan sculpture.
Imperial Yuan sculptures were Tibetan Buddhist works produced by imperial workshops under direct imperial patronage, characterised by Tibetan themes and stylistic influences. They were intimately tied to the religious and political strategies of the Yuan rulers, who revered and promoted Tibetan Buddhism. Historical records note that, in order to promote the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Central Plains, the Yuan emperors constructed numerous temples across regions such as Dadu (today’s Beijing), Shangdu, and Jiangnan. In Dadu alone, more than ten imperial temples were built, including Da Huguo Renwang Si (Great Protecting Benevolent King Temple) and Da Shengshou Wanan Si (Great Temple of Eminent Longevity and Myriad Peace). These temples enshrined a great number of Buddhist statues, all produced by the imperial workshops—specifically the All Artisan Classes in the Imperial Workshops and its subordinate Superintendency for Buddhist Icons (fanxiang yiju si). Yuan dynasty sources referred to such works as fanxiang (Indian icons) or xitian fanxiang (Indian icons from the Western Heaven). Nepalese craftsman Anige (1244-1306) initially worked for these institutions, playing a vital role in the production of Buddhist statues for imperial temples, as ‘many of the statues in the temples of both capitals were made by his hands.’ He ultimately rose to the prestigious positions of Director of All Artisan Classes and Controller of the Imperial Manufactories Commission (Jiangzuoyuan). In the generations that followed, his disciples, such as Liu Yuan, and his sons, Asengge and Ashula, likewise served in these institutions, contributing to the creation of numerous Buddhist sculptures for imperial temples. The Record of Yuan Dynasty Painting and Sculpture (Yuan Dai Hua Su Ji), compiled by the Qing scholar Wen Tingshi, preserves nearly thirty entries documenting Anige, his disciples, and his sons in the production of sculptures for imperial temples. These records provide concrete historical evidence of the close relationship between court-sponsored sculpture-making institutions and the supply and demand of imperial temple sculptures, offering an important foundation for understanding the prominence of imperial Yuan sculpture. While most imperial temples and their sculptures from the Yuan dynasty no longer survive, they remain well documented in historical sources, preserving the rich historical and religious context that underpinned the once-glorious tradition of imperial Yuan sculpture.
Since the recognition of imperial Yuan sculptures in 2014, new examples have continued to surface each year. Some have appeared on the art markets, others have entered the collections of public and private museums in China and internationally, while still others remain enshrined in temples and monasteries in Tibet and beyond. According to incomplete statistics, more than one hundred exemplary imperial Yuan sculptures have been identified to date. In addition, a number of related works of similar style, perhaps referred to as ‘quasi-imperial Yuan sculptures’, are also known. These sculptures encompass a remarkably rich range of themes and types, including gurus, tutelary deities, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Prajnaparamita, luohan, and dharmapālas (protector of the dharma), virtually the full pantheon of Tibetan Buddhist worship. As such, they possess exceptional breadth and representativeness in their design. Although these sculptures vary in theme and form, their style and craftsmanship remain strikingly consistent. Collectively, they embody a distinctive Han-Tibetan synthesis: the Tibetan style draws upon Indian Pala, Nepalese, and indigenous Tibetan traditions, while the Han style integrates elements from Chinese, Mongolian, and Western Xia art. Their shared features are evident in the dignified postures and robust physiques, the broad faces with high, expansive foreheads, the standardised lotus pedestals encircled with full petals, the refined use of metal alloys, and the sumptuous adornment with gemstone inlays across the body. These shared characteristics define the unified stylistic identity of Yuan imperial sculpture, all of which ultimately trace back to a single source: the Yuan Dynasty’s imperial sculpture workshops. Today, these works serve as vital material evidence for the study and authentication of Yuan imperial sculpture, providing an essential foundation for defining their stylistic parameters.
When compared with the established standards of Yuan imperial sculptures, this current figure exemplifies the tradition in four key respects, the first of which is its material alloy bronze, a form of copper combined with zinc. This kind of bronze is of fine, dense quality, with a yellowish tone, thus commonly referred to as huang tong (yellow bronze or brass). It may be said that the Yuan courts marked the beginning of the large-scale production of alloy bronze statues. Prior to this period, most sculptures were cast in bronze, and although alloy bronze works did exist, none attained the level of refinement achieved under the Yuan Dynasty. During the same period, bronze sculptures produced in Tibet, Nepal, and other regions were most often cast in red brass. Alloy bronzes were also popular in Tibet, particularly in the western regions, though their composition differed from that of Yuan imperial sculptures. Tibetan alloy bronzes were made from copper containing natural traces of zinc, whereas Yuan imperial bronzes were deliberately synthesised from copper and zinc. This demonstrates that the use of alloy bronze is a key criterion for identifying Yuan imperial sculptures.
The second is the body form. The figure features a large head, broad shoulders, a high chest, and a narrow waist—sculptural characteristics clearly influenced by the consistent Indian-style sculptures inherited from India’s Pala tradition through Nepal to Tibet. At first glance, the surface bears some resemblance to contemporary Malla sculptures of Nepal, as well as Sakya and Densatil sculptures of Tibet; yet upon closer examination, it reveals distinct characteristics that set it apart, reflecting its unique artistic identity. The face is square and flat, unlike the more pointed faces seen in some foreign sculptural works; the shoulders slope naturally, rather than being raised as in other foreign traditions; and though the head appears large, giving an impression of disproportion, it in fact reflects the transitional sculptural characteristics of imperial Yuan sculptures, bridging inherited traditions with newer expressions. These distinctive features reflect a unique aesthetic sensibility, clearly shaped by the traditional artistic tastes of the Central Plains.
The third aspect pertains to the headwear, clothing ornaments, and sculptural expressions. Head ornaments featuring floral crowns and hair buns are the most characteristic. The floral crown consists of eight petals: five at the front and three at the back. Each petal has a sturdy stem adorned with abundant branches and leaves. At the front, three large and two smaller petals are arranged at varying heights, while the three rear petals are of equal size. This expressive form is exceptionally distinctive, yet it was widely employed in imperial Yuan Bodhisattva sculptures, with numerous examples for comparison—such as a gilt-bronze figure of Marici (goddess of dawn) housed in the Three Gorges Museum in Chongqing. The hair bun consists of rows of braids arranged into a flat, elevated form atop the head, secured by hairbands at the front and back. A precious jewel ornaments the crown of the bun. The intricate braiding is executed with great refinement, resulting in an elegant and striking coiffure. This coiffure clearly derives from Indian P &la sculpture, yet it was equally favoured in imperial Yuan Bodhisattva sculpture. A representative example is a gilt-bronze Bodhisattva figure formerly in the collection of Dr. Robert R. Bigler in Switzerland . The attire consists of the sash and the monk’s skirt, both in form and execution that reflect influence from the Central Plains. This influence is well attested in numerous extant imperial Yuan sculptures. The sash’s style, with its naturalistic drapery folds, had already appeared in the Feilai Peak stone sculptures dating from the 19th to 29th years of the Zhiyuan era (1282-1292) , while the decorative treatment of the monk’s skirt is likewise evident in many gilt-bronze imperial Yuan sculptures. Although the forms and motifs of head ornaments and garments are relatively complex and derived from diverse sources, this imperial Yuan sculpture was rendered in a cohesive manner that consistently reflects the shared stylistic characteristics of its counterparts.
Fourth is the craft of gemstone embellishment. Its crown, earrings, bracelets, belt, and jewelled chains are all inlaid with gems—turquoise and other precious stones—embodying the Buddhist auspicious symbolism of qi bao zhuang yan (seven treasures adornment). The brilliance of jewels and gemstones converges upon the figure, amplifying its dignity and magnificence. The tradition of gem inlay and its associated craftsmanship demonstrably originated in the sculpture-making practices of Tibet and Nepal, as reflected in its frequent appearance in Nepalese Malla and Tibetan Densatil sculptures. This artistic expression is also a defining feature in imperial Yuan sculptures. In the subsequent Ming dynasty, imperial sculptures largely abandoned this intricate practice, with jewelled decorations typically cast integrally with the body. Nonetheless, a very small number of imperial Ming sculptures preserved the tradition of gemstone inlay. Similarly, select Ming sculptures continued Yuan-inspired forms and techniques in crowns, hairstyles, and drapery, collectively attesting to the inseparable artistic lineage linking Yuan and Ming imperial sculpture.
I have previously used both imperial Yuan sculptural remnants in the Central Plains and those discovered across various sites to delineate the development of imperial Yuan sculpture into three stages—early, middle, and late—while summarising the distinct artistic characteristics of each period. The early period, circa 1262–1300, represents a transitional phase in which artistic styles shifted from Indian, Nepalese, and Tibetan sculptures toward Central Plains forms. Representative works include the Tibetan-style stone Buddha sculptures at Feilai Peak in Hangzhou, carved between the 19th and 29th years of the Zhiyuan era (1282-1292). The middle period, circa 1300-1340, saw the consummate fusion of Nepalese and Tibetan styles with Central Plains art, marking the standardisation of the imperial Yuan aesthetic. A typical example is the gilt-bronze Manjushri Bodhisattva figure from the 9th year of the Dade era (1305), now preserved in the Palace Museum. The late period, circa 1340 '1368, exhibits stylistic variations, characterised by a stronger emphasis on Central Plains elements and a general decline in artistic refinement. Representative examples include the bronze Shakyamuni Buddha figure from the 2nd year of Later Zhiyuan era (1336) in the Palace Museum and the relief Buddhas at the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass, Beijing, dating from the 2nd to 5th years of the Zhizheng era (1342-1345). This current figure exhibits flawless form, exceptional craftsmanship, and elaborate adornment. Its details, including the facial features, sash, monk’s skirt, and musculature, are rendered with remarkable precision. The carving demonstrates fine, strong, and fluid lines, reflecting techniques far superior to those of ordinary sculptures. Based on its superior artistic execution, this sculpture can be dated to the early or early-middle period of the Yuan dynasty.
In this past June, I had the privilege of examining a stone Buddha pagoda at Jinshan Temple in Laishui County, Hebei. This pagoda dates to the fourth year of the Yuan’s Dade era (1300). On the stone stele Qian fo she li bao ta ji (Record of the Thousand Buddha Sarira Treasure Pagoda) erected beside it, an inscription reads ‘The main patron of the temple is Grand Master of the Court and Grand Administrator over the Masses, Anige,’ linking the construction of the pagoda to the renowned Nepalese craftsman. To date, this is the only known remains from the Yuan Dynasty with clear documentation connecting Anige to both architectural and Buddhist sculptural activity. The body of the pagoda is carved with nearly a thousand Buddha sculptures across its eight sides, most exhibiting a synthesis of Han and Tibetan artistic features. For instance, the four-sided Buddhas within the line engraved Thousand Buddha motifs display broad, flat faces and naturalistic drapery, clearly demonstrating how the imperial Yuan sculpture style, led by Anige, was influenced by Central Plains art at an early stage. These Buddha sculptures were carved shortly after the statues at Feilai Peak in Hangzhou, predating the Manjushri Bodhisattva in the Palace Museum by five years, and are closely associated with Anige. They provide important reference points for studying the Sinicization of Anige’s sculptural style, the development and evolution of imperial Yuan sculpture, and the dating and stylistic analysis of the current Avalokitesvara figure.
Finally, we turn to the subject matter depicted in this figure. Australian scholar Phillip Adams once identified this figure as Green Tara; however, this attribution is clearly mistaken. Although its posture and pose closely resemble those of Green Tara, it lacks the feminine characteristics typical of that deity. All known imperial Yuan Green Tara sculptures display prominently raised breasts, indicating that this figure does not represent Green Tara, but rather a different subject. Fortunately, this type of Buddha sculpture is documented in Sadhana-mala (A Garland of Means for Attainment), an early Sanskrit compendium of iconographic descriptions, and the Indian Museum preserves extant Pala-period sculptures of the same style. It is consistently identified as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, providing reliable iconographic evidence for the proper designation of this figure. Imperial Yuan sculptures inherited numerous artistic elements from Indian Pala, including the high, flat hair bun and large circular earrings seen on this figure—features directly traceable to Pala art. Based on this artistic lineage, the subject of this figure can be confidently attributed to Pala sculpture. Among known imperial Yuan sculptures, in addition to this figure, there is another Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva figure that appeared at China Guardian’s Spring Auction in May 2024. In the subsequent Ming Dynasty court, this style of Avalokiteśvara became especially popular. Thus, establishing the iconographic identity of this figure provides important historical evidence for the origins of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara sculpture in imperial Ming sculpture and for the continuity of sculptural themes from the Yuan to the Ming Dynasty. Golden Autumn October is a season of harvest. And in this auspicious timing, we are delighted to see this large-size, elegantly designed, and exquisitely crafted imperial Yuan gilt-bronze Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva figure at Christie’s Hong Kong auction. May this rare and magnificent sculpture achieve a resounding success in this golden season.