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Lot Essay
THE EMPEROR QIANLONG’S CHENGNI HUFU INK STONEChi Jo-hsin, Former Curator of the Works of Art Department, National Palace Museum, Taipei
Since the Song Dynasty, literati had always taken pride in owning jiayan (exquisite inkstones), and Emperor Qianlong was no exception. After ascending the throne, he inherited centuries worth of imperial relics in the Forbidden City, including many prized archaistic ink stones. In addition to appreciating these antiques, Emperor Qianlong tasked his court officials with researching and crafting new ink stones. Of these, the production of chengni ink stones was the most laborious.
Chengni (refine clay) ink stones are a type of ceramic ink stone well known to scholars during the Tang and Song dynasties. However, by the Ming Dynasty, duan ink stones had eclipsed chengni ink stones in popularity, causing them to become less known among literati. At the beginning of Qianlong's reign, he too was not familiar with this type of ink stone. Although he had composed a poem titled Songxuan he chengniyan (Song Dynasty's Xuanhe Period and Chengni Ink stone) in 1751, it was merely an act of appreciation and he had yet to use one to grind ink. Then in 1755, Huojidang (Archives of Imperial Workshop) recorded an instance where a chengni yutuchaoyuan yan (ink stone of rabbit gazing at the moon) was presented to the Emperor, accompanied by a red sandalwood box. Qianlong only ordered the uneven parts of the box be shoushi (smoothed out) and the cracks be zouzuo (repaired), but there was no record of its use.
In the summer of 1775, the Emperor commanded that a complete copy of Jia Shi Tan Lu, a book written by Zhang Ji (934-997) in the early Northern Song Dynasty, be presented for his viewing. This book detailed the process of obtaining chengni clay through silk filter bags in Jiangxian, Shanxi Province at that time. It was then under the direction of the Emperor, the Grand Secretariats, such as Yu Minzhong (1714-1779), inspector-general of Shanxi Province, Suzhou zhizao (workshop), among other imperial and local officials, began the research and production of chengni ink stones.
Though having learned the method of sourcing clay from submerged silk bags in Jiangxian, Emperor Qianlong still lacked the experience of using a chengni ink stone to grind ink. He therefore ordered a chengni ink stone to be brought in for trial use. After trying it out for the first time, he expressed great satisfaction, stating that "biyushoumo, jiaoshiyibi" (It accepts the ink better than jade, and it handles the brush better than stones). This was already July of 1775 in the lunar calendar.
At that time, archaic chengni ink stones in the imperial collection included the chengni hufuyan (chengni tiger tally ink stone). Four such inkstones were recorded in the Xiqing yanpo (Xi Qing Inkstone Manual), three of which are now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei (Artifact no. 549, 1649, and 1656). It was believed that the original form of this type of ink stone was inspired by the bronze tiger tally used for mobilizing troops in ancient times, hence the name. However, it is now known that this type of ink stone shaped like a crouching tiger was actually imitated from the bronze ink stone box with an exotic beast in the Han Dynasty. As Emperor Qianlong directed his officials to study and create new chengni Ink stones, many of them were made to imitate the shapes of archaistic ink stones in the imperial collection, including the crouching tiger-shaped ones. As they were newly made tiger-shaped ink stones, it was not appropriate to call them "tiger tally ink stones" and they were renamed "crouching tiger ink stones" based on their appearance. In the Huojidang records, whether old or newly made, most ink stones were simply referred to as chengni huyan (tiger ink stone), but by the end of June in 1776, the term chengni hufuyan (crouching tiger ink stone) was used to refer to newly made chengni tiger ink stones.
In fact, the chengni clay sourced from Jiangxian was "hard in nature" and had to be mixed with 30% Jiangnan clay or added with crushed porcelain powder before it could be used. As for the ink stone box, although the Imperial Household had already planned to prepare a false-sash flower-patterned "standard box" made of red sandalwood for the chengni hufuyan in mid-May of 1776, and an imperial decree was given to make such sandalwood boxes for the existing chengni huyan collection in Maoqindian (Maoqin Palace) in October of the same year, but the Emperor soon changed his mind and ordered the production of red sandalwood ink stone boxes carved with dragon patterns for two newly-made chengni hufuyan.
This change of heart was swift, but the news did not reach Suzhou soon enough. On September 22 of 1777, a chengni hufuyan with a red sandalwood false-sash box was delivered to the Emperor. He did not lay blame but actually appreciated the Suzhou craftsman's imitation of the green rust patina of ancient bronze wares on that particular ink stone. As the result, a decree was issued to send newly-made chengni linghua bafang yan (foliate-form octagonal inkstones), chengni longwen yan (dragon pattern inkstones) and huangshi ink stone to Suzhou to be decorated with the same green rust color as the chengni hufu yan. In addition, ink stones in shiqu patterns also had to be sent to Suzhou for the imitation of the green rust color. However, there were still records of newly-made chengni ink stones that retained their original color without the need for the green patina treatment.
Apart from the green rust color, which was mostly completed by Suzhou craftsmen, the inscriptions on the ink stones were drafted, sometimes also carved, by the Maoqindian court officials before sending over to Suzhou craftsmen for engraving. Later, the chengni ink stones sent by Suzhou were usually completed with text inscriptions first. Over the course of more than 10 years, Suzhou Workshop would occasionally send various newly-made chengni ink stones—some imitating ancient tiles, some in the style of shiqu ink stones, some with rabbit gazing at the moon decorations, or directly in the form of crouching tigers—to the imperial court. The latter was recorded as "Chengni Tiger Tally Ink stone" and not as "Crouching Tiger Ink stone", a term originally intended to refer to newly made chengni tiger ink stones, likely due to a long-standing error that was in time accepted as correct. On January 27 of 1789, the imperial officials presented various items from Suzhou Workshop for the Emperor's viewing. Among them were two chengni yutuchaoyuan yan and two chengni hufu yan. By imperial decree, the two hufu yan were taken out of the Forbidden City, one to be displayed at the Panshan Palace on the outskirts of Beijing, and the other to the Rehe Palace for storage. Another decree was issued to the Suzhou Workshop, stating that "the hufu yan need not be made in the future." In the late spring of the following year (1790), the chengni ink stone materials from Jiangxian that remained in Suzhou were exhausted, and the Emperor decreed the Suzhou Workshop to stop its decade-long task of producing chengni ink stones.
In summary, starting from the early fortieth years of Qianlong's reign, he commanded officials and craftsmen to research and produce chengni ink stones. Besides the focus on suitable materials, attention was also paid to the details of firing the ink stones. The accompanying ink stone boxes were made of expensive red sandalwood, and the shapes, patterns, and inscriptions were all meticulously designed. The texts for the inscriptions were written by Maoqindian court officials and were either engraved in the Forbidden City or by Suzhou craftsmen. The storage locations of each ink stone were also carefully chosen. The officials overseeing the ink stone productions in Shanxi and Suzhou did not dare to slack off, diligently sourcing the clay from submerged silk bags each year and firing the ink stones on schedule to meet the Emperor's expectations. These chengni ink stones were not only stored in the Forbidden City and nearby suburban palaces but they were also sent to summer resorts or Jiangnan Palace for storage. Some had decorations imitating the green-rust color of ancient bronze wares, while others retained the original color of chengni from Jiangxian.
Since the Song Dynasty, literati had always taken pride in owning jiayan (exquisite inkstones), and Emperor Qianlong was no exception. After ascending the throne, he inherited centuries worth of imperial relics in the Forbidden City, including many prized archaistic ink stones. In addition to appreciating these antiques, Emperor Qianlong tasked his court officials with researching and crafting new ink stones. Of these, the production of chengni ink stones was the most laborious.
Chengni (refine clay) ink stones are a type of ceramic ink stone well known to scholars during the Tang and Song dynasties. However, by the Ming Dynasty, duan ink stones had eclipsed chengni ink stones in popularity, causing them to become less known among literati. At the beginning of Qianlong's reign, he too was not familiar with this type of ink stone. Although he had composed a poem titled Songxuan he chengniyan (Song Dynasty's Xuanhe Period and Chengni Ink stone) in 1751, it was merely an act of appreciation and he had yet to use one to grind ink. Then in 1755, Huojidang (Archives of Imperial Workshop) recorded an instance where a chengni yutuchaoyuan yan (ink stone of rabbit gazing at the moon) was presented to the Emperor, accompanied by a red sandalwood box. Qianlong only ordered the uneven parts of the box be shoushi (smoothed out) and the cracks be zouzuo (repaired), but there was no record of its use.
In the summer of 1775, the Emperor commanded that a complete copy of Jia Shi Tan Lu, a book written by Zhang Ji (934-997) in the early Northern Song Dynasty, be presented for his viewing. This book detailed the process of obtaining chengni clay through silk filter bags in Jiangxian, Shanxi Province at that time. It was then under the direction of the Emperor, the Grand Secretariats, such as Yu Minzhong (1714-1779), inspector-general of Shanxi Province, Suzhou zhizao (workshop), among other imperial and local officials, began the research and production of chengni ink stones.
Though having learned the method of sourcing clay from submerged silk bags in Jiangxian, Emperor Qianlong still lacked the experience of using a chengni ink stone to grind ink. He therefore ordered a chengni ink stone to be brought in for trial use. After trying it out for the first time, he expressed great satisfaction, stating that "biyushoumo, jiaoshiyibi" (It accepts the ink better than jade, and it handles the brush better than stones). This was already July of 1775 in the lunar calendar.
At that time, archaic chengni ink stones in the imperial collection included the chengni hufuyan (chengni tiger tally ink stone). Four such inkstones were recorded in the Xiqing yanpo (Xi Qing Inkstone Manual), three of which are now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei (Artifact no. 549, 1649, and 1656). It was believed that the original form of this type of ink stone was inspired by the bronze tiger tally used for mobilizing troops in ancient times, hence the name. However, it is now known that this type of ink stone shaped like a crouching tiger was actually imitated from the bronze ink stone box with an exotic beast in the Han Dynasty. As Emperor Qianlong directed his officials to study and create new chengni Ink stones, many of them were made to imitate the shapes of archaistic ink stones in the imperial collection, including the crouching tiger-shaped ones. As they were newly made tiger-shaped ink stones, it was not appropriate to call them "tiger tally ink stones" and they were renamed "crouching tiger ink stones" based on their appearance. In the Huojidang records, whether old or newly made, most ink stones were simply referred to as chengni huyan (tiger ink stone), but by the end of June in 1776, the term chengni hufuyan (crouching tiger ink stone) was used to refer to newly made chengni tiger ink stones.
In fact, the chengni clay sourced from Jiangxian was "hard in nature" and had to be mixed with 30% Jiangnan clay or added with crushed porcelain powder before it could be used. As for the ink stone box, although the Imperial Household had already planned to prepare a false-sash flower-patterned "standard box" made of red sandalwood for the chengni hufuyan in mid-May of 1776, and an imperial decree was given to make such sandalwood boxes for the existing chengni huyan collection in Maoqindian (Maoqin Palace) in October of the same year, but the Emperor soon changed his mind and ordered the production of red sandalwood ink stone boxes carved with dragon patterns for two newly-made chengni hufuyan.
This change of heart was swift, but the news did not reach Suzhou soon enough. On September 22 of 1777, a chengni hufuyan with a red sandalwood false-sash box was delivered to the Emperor. He did not lay blame but actually appreciated the Suzhou craftsman's imitation of the green rust patina of ancient bronze wares on that particular ink stone. As the result, a decree was issued to send newly-made chengni linghua bafang yan (foliate-form octagonal inkstones), chengni longwen yan (dragon pattern inkstones) and huangshi ink stone to Suzhou to be decorated with the same green rust color as the chengni hufu yan. In addition, ink stones in shiqu patterns also had to be sent to Suzhou for the imitation of the green rust color. However, there were still records of newly-made chengni ink stones that retained their original color without the need for the green patina treatment.
Apart from the green rust color, which was mostly completed by Suzhou craftsmen, the inscriptions on the ink stones were drafted, sometimes also carved, by the Maoqindian court officials before sending over to Suzhou craftsmen for engraving. Later, the chengni ink stones sent by Suzhou were usually completed with text inscriptions first. Over the course of more than 10 years, Suzhou Workshop would occasionally send various newly-made chengni ink stones—some imitating ancient tiles, some in the style of shiqu ink stones, some with rabbit gazing at the moon decorations, or directly in the form of crouching tigers—to the imperial court. The latter was recorded as "Chengni Tiger Tally Ink stone" and not as "Crouching Tiger Ink stone", a term originally intended to refer to newly made chengni tiger ink stones, likely due to a long-standing error that was in time accepted as correct. On January 27 of 1789, the imperial officials presented various items from Suzhou Workshop for the Emperor's viewing. Among them were two chengni yutuchaoyuan yan and two chengni hufu yan. By imperial decree, the two hufu yan were taken out of the Forbidden City, one to be displayed at the Panshan Palace on the outskirts of Beijing, and the other to the Rehe Palace for storage. Another decree was issued to the Suzhou Workshop, stating that "the hufu yan need not be made in the future." In the late spring of the following year (1790), the chengni ink stone materials from Jiangxian that remained in Suzhou were exhausted, and the Emperor decreed the Suzhou Workshop to stop its decade-long task of producing chengni ink stones.
In summary, starting from the early fortieth years of Qianlong's reign, he commanded officials and craftsmen to research and produce chengni ink stones. Besides the focus on suitable materials, attention was also paid to the details of firing the ink stones. The accompanying ink stone boxes were made of expensive red sandalwood, and the shapes, patterns, and inscriptions were all meticulously designed. The texts for the inscriptions were written by Maoqindian court officials and were either engraved in the Forbidden City or by Suzhou craftsmen. The storage locations of each ink stone were also carefully chosen. The officials overseeing the ink stone productions in Shanxi and Suzhou did not dare to slack off, diligently sourcing the clay from submerged silk bags each year and firing the ink stones on schedule to meet the Emperor's expectations. These chengni ink stones were not only stored in the Forbidden City and nearby suburban palaces but they were also sent to summer resorts or Jiangnan Palace for storage. Some had decorations imitating the green-rust color of ancient bronze wares, while others retained the original color of chengni from Jiangxian.