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Lot Essay
This breathtaking study of a family of cheetahs is one of the most outstanding and unforgettable early Mughal paintings. Exquisitely observed and rendered with an evocative and highly expressive naturalism, it has been firmly attributed by many leading scholars to the great Akbar-period master Basawan, one of the emperor’s favourite artists.
It is a highly important work in the history of early Mughal art, representing one of the earliest natural history studies. It has been exhibited and published on numerous occasions and has been esteemed by art historians for several decades; Brand and Lowry described it as superb (Brand and Lowry 1985, p.79), Goswamy and Fischer as a quite remarkable study (Goswamy and Fischer 1987, p.134), and Amina Okada commented that it “confirms the graphic mastery of the prodigious Basawan”, who “displays a concern for contours and a sensitivity to supple and rounded forms which produce spectacular indeed almost baroque effects while never disturbing the general harmony of the composition” (Okada 1991, p.4).
It has also been celebrated by naturalists for its significant rarity in depicting these majestic animals in their natural habitat. Divyabanusinh described it as follows: “This charming scene of a cheetah family in its natural habitat has been delicately executed by a master. It is the earliest known study of cheetahs in the wild in India” (Divyabanusinh 1995, p.51 and 2023, p.51).
THE SUBJECT
Cheetahs have been prized by kings and princes all over Eurasia since ancient times, primarily for their hunting skills, but also as majestic royal companions. Hunting with cheetahs was one of the foremost princely pastimes in India for centuries, and the Mughal emperors were enthusiastic followers of this tradition. Akbar (r. 1556-1605) appears to have had a particular fondness for cheetahs, verging on the superstitious. The Akbarnama records that in 1555, at the age of 13, Akbar was presented with a cheetah which he named Fatehbaz – “the gamester of victory” (Akbarnama, vol. 1, pp.629-30). Abu’l Fazl, the author of the Akbarnama and Akbar’s confidant, informs us that the emperor had particular regard for this animal, and the name that Akbar chose for the animal suggests that the emperor projected auspicious qualities on to cheetahs, an attitude that strengthened during his reign. He often saw his interactions with cheetahs, whether on the hunting field or otherwise, as being propitious and providential. He was hunting in 1569 when he was informed that a particularly powerful cheetah had been captured. Akbar proceeded to the spot, and while he was in the process of retrieving the animal he was informed of the birth of a daughter. Akbar linked to the two events as propitious: “He gave to that auspicious arrival the name Khanam, and ordered rejoicings. It is hoped that the notes of auspiciousness in her will increase day by day and that she will be a source of increased life and fortune to the lord of the world” (Akbarnama, vol. II, p.509). A related event occurred in the same year, when Akbar’s wife Mariam al-Zamani was pregnant with the future emperor Jahangir. One day the baby made no movement in his mother’s womb and all the attendants were greatly worried for the health of the unborn royal child. It was a Friday, and Akbar was hunting cheetahs at the time. When the worrying news from the harem was reported to Akbar, he stopped hunting and made a vow that if the child was saved he would never hunt cheetahs on a Friday (Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, vol. II, pp.45-6; Jahangirnama, p.218).
The particular regard that Akbar had for cheetahs, as described above, combined with a burgeoning interest in natural history paintings, may have influenced the creation of the present painting. There are several illustrations involving trained hunting cheetahs in the Akbarnama (see, e.g., Stronge 2002, pls.39, 42), however, in depicting cheetahs in their natural habitat in the wild, the present painting is a much rarer work. Beach identified this painting and a well-known scene of Two Rosy Pastors (Gulshan Album, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Lib. Pict. A 117, fol.17v) as being the most important early Mughal natural history studies, and, with their similar size and visual character (and both being painted on cloth, a rare feature outside the Hamzanama series), suggested that they may have been produced for an album of animal studies being prepared for Akbar (Beach 1987, no.13, pp.28, 30; see also Das 2012, fig.I.8).
THE PAINTING
The scene portrays a family of cheetahs relaxing on a patch of luxuriant grass in a rocky landscape. A stream tumbles to the lower left and a large tree with a twisted trunk grows animatedly at the upper left, providing the cheetahs with shade. Small bushes grow amongst the rocks at upper right, two bearing blossom. An intense gold sky backlights the whole scene, with flights of birds in the distance at the upper edge. The male cheetah looks on contentedly while the female suckles one cub while cleaning another. Two further cubs play animatedly in the foreground. A clump of long spiky grass grows at the lower right. So focussed is the viewer on the idyllic scene in the foreground that it is easy to overlook the pair of blackbirds in the upper branches of the tree as well as the pair of squirrels in the lower branches, and the solitary monkey peering curiously at the cheetahs through a cleft in the knotty tree-trunk. The inclusion of pairs of animals and birds was a visual trope in Persian and Indian painting (and other traditions) often symbolising fertility, fidelity and marital harmony, and the artist’s decision here to include the blackbirds and squirrels in pairs was no doubt intentional, reinforcing the idea of a family idyll represented by the cheetahs. The gnarled and twisted tree, with a large branch coiling round the main trunk, is particularly expressive and typical of Basawan. Okada commented that “The tree, with its knotty trunk, tortuous and interlaced branches, will remain a leitmotiv in many of his compositions, a troubling reflection of the painter’s love for a mysterious and brilliant dramatization of natural forms.” (Okada 1991, p.4). Another of Basawan’s early works, The Cow and the Calf (Doha, Museum of Islamic Art, MS 33.02) includes a tree with the same feature of a thick branch wrapping itself round the trunk (see Brand and Lowry 1985, p.78; Das 2012, fig.I.7).
The present painting is a powerful and exceptionally expressive work, simultaneously dramatic and tranquil, combining masterful execution with a naturalism, intensity and sensitivity that marks it out as a masterpiece of Basawan’s oeuvre. Anthony Welch commented on its “soft contours, imaginative nuances of colour, and sensitivity to emotions and personalities” and suggested it would have delighted the artist’s royal patron (Welch and Welch 1982, p.149).
In the Ain-i Akbari, Abu’l Fazl remarked that in Akbari painting, “even inanimate objects look as though they had life” (Ain-i Akbari, vol.1, pp.107). Cary Welch commented that Abu’l Fazl’s remark applies particularly meaningfully to Basawan’s work, in which “Each tree, still life object, or building plays some role in the action” (Welch 1961, pp.15-16). Both descriptions can be applied emphatically to the present work, where the sky, the rocks, the tumbling water and the tortuous, dramatically gnarled tree all play an active role. The golden sky is vividly present, a radiant glow that silhouettes and amplifies the already dramatic tree and bathes the foreground in light. It is not simply a passive backdrop, but has become an active part of the scene, adding to the sense of realism as the viewer observes the family of cheetahs relaxing in the bright light of dawn. Like the watching monkey behind the tree, the viewer feels almost personally present, observing the family of cheetahs going about their domestic activities in their natural habitat. Akbar had a particular fondness for Basawan’s empathetic rendering of characters that helped to make him the paramount artist of the royal atelier (Seyller 2011A, pp.123-4).
Basawan’s interest in realism is expressed not only in his inventive approach to the composition and to form, volume, colour, detail and depth, and “atmospheric perspective” (Seyller 2011A, p.119), but also in the decision to portray the animals in their natural habitat rather than tamed or in the hunting field. The choice of the particular landscape setting here - a hilly outcrop with the cheetahs reclining under a tree - may reflect an interest in naturalism on the part of the artist and his royal patron. In the Ain-i Akbari Abu’l Fazl describes aspects of cheetahs’ behaviour in the wild, informing us that their natural habitat is on top of a hill under the shade of a tree, exactly the setting we have here (Ain-i Akbari, vol.1, p.296). Seyller commented that Basawan incorporated many such empirical observations into his works (Seyller 2011A, p.119).
Basawan’s attention to naturalistic detail is also revealed by the fact that the squirrels clearly have stripes down their backs, indicating that they belong to a species native to India rather than either a generic type or, as in the case of the well-known scene of Squirrels in a plane tree by Abu’l Hasan (British Library, Johnson Album 1, no.30), a foreign species borrowed from a European printed source (see Falk and Archer 1981, no.34, pp.59-60). Furthermore, the artist has depicted the blackbirds in the tree facing each other with their tails raised and one with its head bowed. These specific postures occur during blackbirds’ courtship displays, further emphasising not only the attention to realistic detail, but also underlining the symbolism of fertility, fidelity and marital happiness inherent in the portrayal of the main scene of the family of cheetahs.
THE ARTIST
Basawan was one of the supreme artists of the royal atelier, “the preeminent artist of Akbar’s reign” (Seyller 2011A, p.124). His career began around 1556 and continued throughout Akbar’s reign, ending around 1600. He was revered in his own time and contributed to the majority of illustrated manuscripts produced by the imperial atelier. He was praised by Abu’l Fazl in the Ain-i Akbari as follows: “Basawan became the unique one in the age in outline-composition, the portraiture of faces, the blending of colours, the painting of real likenesses and other operations of this art ” (translation by Simon Digby, quoted in Das 1978, p.204, fn.128, and Seyller 2011A, p.122). His style is characterised by originality of subject matter, inventive and complex compositions, graphic mastery, the use of colour to model form, sensitive depiction of volume, naturalism, empathy and psychological intensity.
Beach described Basawan as one of the great talents to flourish under Emperor Akbar, a rationalist, with an interest in physical form and texture and a sympathetic comprehension of individuality, who became the most important, prestigious and influential painter of the later years of Akbar’s reign, a touchstone for judging stylistic developments and quality in Mughal painting (Beach 2009, p.268; Beach 2012, p.203). Okada described him as peerless, and perhaps the most accomplished artist of Akbar’s court, who obviously took delight in depicting animals and had an impressive ability to dramatize natural forms in a stunning and mysterious way (Okada 1992, p. 80). For further discussions of Basawan see: Okada 1991; Okada 1992; Beach 1996; Beach 2009; Seyller 2011A; Welch 1961
It is a highly important work in the history of early Mughal art, representing one of the earliest natural history studies. It has been exhibited and published on numerous occasions and has been esteemed by art historians for several decades; Brand and Lowry described it as superb (Brand and Lowry 1985, p.79), Goswamy and Fischer as a quite remarkable study (Goswamy and Fischer 1987, p.134), and Amina Okada commented that it “confirms the graphic mastery of the prodigious Basawan”, who “displays a concern for contours and a sensitivity to supple and rounded forms which produce spectacular indeed almost baroque effects while never disturbing the general harmony of the composition” (Okada 1991, p.4).
It has also been celebrated by naturalists for its significant rarity in depicting these majestic animals in their natural habitat. Divyabanusinh described it as follows: “This charming scene of a cheetah family in its natural habitat has been delicately executed by a master. It is the earliest known study of cheetahs in the wild in India” (Divyabanusinh 1995, p.51 and 2023, p.51).
THE SUBJECT
Cheetahs have been prized by kings and princes all over Eurasia since ancient times, primarily for their hunting skills, but also as majestic royal companions. Hunting with cheetahs was one of the foremost princely pastimes in India for centuries, and the Mughal emperors were enthusiastic followers of this tradition. Akbar (r. 1556-1605) appears to have had a particular fondness for cheetahs, verging on the superstitious. The Akbarnama records that in 1555, at the age of 13, Akbar was presented with a cheetah which he named Fatehbaz – “the gamester of victory” (Akbarnama, vol. 1, pp.629-30). Abu’l Fazl, the author of the Akbarnama and Akbar’s confidant, informs us that the emperor had particular regard for this animal, and the name that Akbar chose for the animal suggests that the emperor projected auspicious qualities on to cheetahs, an attitude that strengthened during his reign. He often saw his interactions with cheetahs, whether on the hunting field or otherwise, as being propitious and providential. He was hunting in 1569 when he was informed that a particularly powerful cheetah had been captured. Akbar proceeded to the spot, and while he was in the process of retrieving the animal he was informed of the birth of a daughter. Akbar linked to the two events as propitious: “He gave to that auspicious arrival the name Khanam, and ordered rejoicings. It is hoped that the notes of auspiciousness in her will increase day by day and that she will be a source of increased life and fortune to the lord of the world” (Akbarnama, vol. II, p.509). A related event occurred in the same year, when Akbar’s wife Mariam al-Zamani was pregnant with the future emperor Jahangir. One day the baby made no movement in his mother’s womb and all the attendants were greatly worried for the health of the unborn royal child. It was a Friday, and Akbar was hunting cheetahs at the time. When the worrying news from the harem was reported to Akbar, he stopped hunting and made a vow that if the child was saved he would never hunt cheetahs on a Friday (Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, vol. II, pp.45-6; Jahangirnama, p.218).
The particular regard that Akbar had for cheetahs, as described above, combined with a burgeoning interest in natural history paintings, may have influenced the creation of the present painting. There are several illustrations involving trained hunting cheetahs in the Akbarnama (see, e.g., Stronge 2002, pls.39, 42), however, in depicting cheetahs in their natural habitat in the wild, the present painting is a much rarer work. Beach identified this painting and a well-known scene of Two Rosy Pastors (Gulshan Album, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Lib. Pict. A 117, fol.17v) as being the most important early Mughal natural history studies, and, with their similar size and visual character (and both being painted on cloth, a rare feature outside the Hamzanama series), suggested that they may have been produced for an album of animal studies being prepared for Akbar (Beach 1987, no.13, pp.28, 30; see also Das 2012, fig.I.8).
THE PAINTING
The scene portrays a family of cheetahs relaxing on a patch of luxuriant grass in a rocky landscape. A stream tumbles to the lower left and a large tree with a twisted trunk grows animatedly at the upper left, providing the cheetahs with shade. Small bushes grow amongst the rocks at upper right, two bearing blossom. An intense gold sky backlights the whole scene, with flights of birds in the distance at the upper edge. The male cheetah looks on contentedly while the female suckles one cub while cleaning another. Two further cubs play animatedly in the foreground. A clump of long spiky grass grows at the lower right. So focussed is the viewer on the idyllic scene in the foreground that it is easy to overlook the pair of blackbirds in the upper branches of the tree as well as the pair of squirrels in the lower branches, and the solitary monkey peering curiously at the cheetahs through a cleft in the knotty tree-trunk. The inclusion of pairs of animals and birds was a visual trope in Persian and Indian painting (and other traditions) often symbolising fertility, fidelity and marital harmony, and the artist’s decision here to include the blackbirds and squirrels in pairs was no doubt intentional, reinforcing the idea of a family idyll represented by the cheetahs. The gnarled and twisted tree, with a large branch coiling round the main trunk, is particularly expressive and typical of Basawan. Okada commented that “The tree, with its knotty trunk, tortuous and interlaced branches, will remain a leitmotiv in many of his compositions, a troubling reflection of the painter’s love for a mysterious and brilliant dramatization of natural forms.” (Okada 1991, p.4). Another of Basawan’s early works, The Cow and the Calf (Doha, Museum of Islamic Art, MS 33.02) includes a tree with the same feature of a thick branch wrapping itself round the trunk (see Brand and Lowry 1985, p.78; Das 2012, fig.I.7).
The present painting is a powerful and exceptionally expressive work, simultaneously dramatic and tranquil, combining masterful execution with a naturalism, intensity and sensitivity that marks it out as a masterpiece of Basawan’s oeuvre. Anthony Welch commented on its “soft contours, imaginative nuances of colour, and sensitivity to emotions and personalities” and suggested it would have delighted the artist’s royal patron (Welch and Welch 1982, p.149).
In the Ain-i Akbari, Abu’l Fazl remarked that in Akbari painting, “even inanimate objects look as though they had life” (Ain-i Akbari, vol.1, pp.107). Cary Welch commented that Abu’l Fazl’s remark applies particularly meaningfully to Basawan’s work, in which “Each tree, still life object, or building plays some role in the action” (Welch 1961, pp.15-16). Both descriptions can be applied emphatically to the present work, where the sky, the rocks, the tumbling water and the tortuous, dramatically gnarled tree all play an active role. The golden sky is vividly present, a radiant glow that silhouettes and amplifies the already dramatic tree and bathes the foreground in light. It is not simply a passive backdrop, but has become an active part of the scene, adding to the sense of realism as the viewer observes the family of cheetahs relaxing in the bright light of dawn. Like the watching monkey behind the tree, the viewer feels almost personally present, observing the family of cheetahs going about their domestic activities in their natural habitat. Akbar had a particular fondness for Basawan’s empathetic rendering of characters that helped to make him the paramount artist of the royal atelier (Seyller 2011A, pp.123-4).
Basawan’s interest in realism is expressed not only in his inventive approach to the composition and to form, volume, colour, detail and depth, and “atmospheric perspective” (Seyller 2011A, p.119), but also in the decision to portray the animals in their natural habitat rather than tamed or in the hunting field. The choice of the particular landscape setting here - a hilly outcrop with the cheetahs reclining under a tree - may reflect an interest in naturalism on the part of the artist and his royal patron. In the Ain-i Akbari Abu’l Fazl describes aspects of cheetahs’ behaviour in the wild, informing us that their natural habitat is on top of a hill under the shade of a tree, exactly the setting we have here (Ain-i Akbari, vol.1, p.296). Seyller commented that Basawan incorporated many such empirical observations into his works (Seyller 2011A, p.119).
Basawan’s attention to naturalistic detail is also revealed by the fact that the squirrels clearly have stripes down their backs, indicating that they belong to a species native to India rather than either a generic type or, as in the case of the well-known scene of Squirrels in a plane tree by Abu’l Hasan (British Library, Johnson Album 1, no.30), a foreign species borrowed from a European printed source (see Falk and Archer 1981, no.34, pp.59-60). Furthermore, the artist has depicted the blackbirds in the tree facing each other with their tails raised and one with its head bowed. These specific postures occur during blackbirds’ courtship displays, further emphasising not only the attention to realistic detail, but also underlining the symbolism of fertility, fidelity and marital happiness inherent in the portrayal of the main scene of the family of cheetahs.
THE ARTIST
Basawan was one of the supreme artists of the royal atelier, “the preeminent artist of Akbar’s reign” (Seyller 2011A, p.124). His career began around 1556 and continued throughout Akbar’s reign, ending around 1600. He was revered in his own time and contributed to the majority of illustrated manuscripts produced by the imperial atelier. He was praised by Abu’l Fazl in the Ain-i Akbari as follows: “Basawan became the unique one in the age in outline-composition, the portraiture of faces, the blending of colours, the painting of real likenesses and other operations of this art ” (translation by Simon Digby, quoted in Das 1978, p.204, fn.128, and Seyller 2011A, p.122). His style is characterised by originality of subject matter, inventive and complex compositions, graphic mastery, the use of colour to model form, sensitive depiction of volume, naturalism, empathy and psychological intensity.
Beach described Basawan as one of the great talents to flourish under Emperor Akbar, a rationalist, with an interest in physical form and texture and a sympathetic comprehension of individuality, who became the most important, prestigious and influential painter of the later years of Akbar’s reign, a touchstone for judging stylistic developments and quality in Mughal painting (Beach 2009, p.268; Beach 2012, p.203). Okada described him as peerless, and perhaps the most accomplished artist of Akbar’s court, who obviously took delight in depicting animals and had an impressive ability to dramatize natural forms in a stunning and mysterious way (Okada 1992, p. 80). For further discussions of Basawan see: Okada 1991; Okada 1992; Beach 1996; Beach 2009; Seyller 2011A; Welch 1961